By 1570, Elizabeth I’s religious settlement faced significant challenges from within England and abroad, threatening the fragile stability of the Church of England.
Mary, Queen of Scots: A Catholic Threat in England
Claim to the English Throne
Mary, Queen of Scots, was a legitimate great-granddaughter of Henry VII, making her a strong dynastic claimant to the English throne. Many Catholics viewed Elizabeth I as illegitimate due to the annulment of Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon and thus supported Mary’s claim as the rightful monarch.
Mary’s lineage made her a focus of Catholic hopes for restoring Catholicism in England.
Her Catholic upbringing and beliefs made her an ideal figurehead for opposition to the Protestant Elizabeth.
Arrival in England (1568)
Mary was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in 1567 after a scandal involving her marriage to the Earl of Bothwell and accusations of involvement in her second husband’s murder. She fled to England in 1568 seeking Elizabeth’s protection.
Elizabeth detained Mary immediately, fearing her presence could spark Catholic uprisings.
Mary’s arrival created an immediate dilemma: she could not be allowed freedom due to her potential as a Catholic rallying point, but executing or handing her over could set dangerous precedents.
Mary’s presence in England became a focal point for plots, rebellion, and international tension, posing a lasting threat to the stability of Elizabeth’s religious and political regime.
The Rising of the Northern Earls (1569)
Causes
The rebellion, also known as the Northern Rebellion, was led by Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Charles Neville, Earl of Westmorland, two powerful Catholic nobles in northern England.
Key motivations included:
Religious conservatism: strong regional Catholicism, particularly in the north, resented Elizabeth’s Protestant reforms.
Loss of noble influence: traditional power structures had been undermined by centralisation and the rise of Protestant officials.
Desire to restore Catholicism and place Mary, Queen of Scots, in a position of influence or even the throne.
There were also personal grievances, such as exclusion from court and reduced roles in government, which fed resentment among the conservative nobility.
Course of the Rebellion
Began in November 1569 with the aim of marching south and freeing Mary from custody.
Rebels took Durham, celebrated a Catholic Mass in the cathedral, and marched as far as the River Tees.
Their support was limited—many gentry remained loyal to Elizabeth or feared retribution.
The rebellion collapsed quickly, lacking military coordination and broader backing.
Suppression and Consequences
Elizabeth responded with decisive force: thousands of royal troops were mobilised, and the rebellion was crushed by early 1570.
Over 700 rebels were executed, many by hanging in public displays of royal authority.
Northumberland was captured and later executed, while Westmorland escaped abroad.
The Council of the North was reformed, strengthening central control and weakening noble autonomy.
Significance:
Revealed the fragility of the Settlement in regions of strong Catholic identity.
Increased suspicion of the nobility and deepened Elizabeth’s distrust of Mary.
Contributed to hardening religious policy and the emergence of anti-Catholic measures.
Papal Excommunication: Regnans in Excelsis (1570)
Context
In response to the perceived heresy of Elizabeth’s rule and the failure of internal rebellion, Pope Pius V issued the bull Regnans in Excelsis in February 1570.
Content and Message
The bull excommunicated Elizabeth I, declaring her a heretic and illegitimate queen.
It absolved her subjects from any allegiance to her and encouraged rebellion or foreign intervention.
This marked a turning point in Catholic opposition, moving from quiet resistance to open defiance.
Political and Religious Fallout
The excommunication internationalised the religious conflict, as foreign Catholic powers were now formally invited to act against Elizabeth.
It increased danger for English Catholics, who were now seen as potential traitors.
Many moderate Catholics had been loyal, but the bull undermined their position, forcing them to choose between faith and loyalty.
Elizabeth’s government responded by:
Tightening laws against recusancy (non-attendance at Anglican services).
Expelling or punishing priests suspected of supporting Rome.
Increasing surveillance of Catholic nobles and suspected sympathisers.
The excommunication pushed Elizabeth toward a more repressive religious stance, marking a clear decline in the early period of relative tolerance.
Condition of the Church by 1570
Degree of Consolidation
By 1570, the institutional framework of the Church of England had been largely established through the 1559 Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. Most parishes conformed outwardly, and the use of the Book of Common Prayer was widespread.
Royal Visitations and enforcement mechanisms had ensured at least superficial compliance.
Many clergy had conformed, though not always with personal conviction.
Episcopal structure had been restored and was functioning under new leadership.
However, consolidation was patchy and uneven, particularly in areas of traditional Catholicism such as Lancashire and the far North.
Growing Catholic Opposition
Despite outward conformity, Catholic recusancy was growing, particularly among the gentry. The Northern Rebellion and the papal bull emboldened more Catholics to resist the state church.
Secret Catholic masses were held in private homes.
Networks of recusant support began to develop, although still small-scale.
Jesuit and seminary priests would soon begin to arrive from Europe, intensifying underground Catholic resistance.
The Church was thus established but not secure, facing an undercurrent of discontent and active plotting.
Puritan Emergence
Alongside Catholic opposition, radical Protestantism, or Puritanism, was also beginning to challenge the Elizabethan Church.
Puritans opposed the compromises of the Settlement, especially the use of vestments, ceremonies, and hierarchical structure.
Some clergymen and academics called for a more thorough reformation, inspired by Calvinist models from Geneva.
There was rising pressure for presbyterian forms of church governance and doctrinal clarity.
Although Elizabeth resisted further reform, Puritan voices gained influence in Parliament and among some bishops. The Puritan challenge remained a latent threat, growing steadily in strength and intellectual support.
End of Religious Consensus
Deepening Divisions
By 1570, the broad consensus that had allowed Elizabeth to stabilise the early years of her reign was beginning to fragment.
Catholics were becoming more emboldened by foreign encouragement and domestic resistance.
Puritans were growing increasingly vocal and organised in demanding further change.
The middle ground of moderate conformity was shrinking under the pressures of ideological conflict.
The excommunication and the Northern Rebellion hardened attitudes and ended hopes for peaceful religious co-existence.
Beginning of Intensified Catholic Persecution
In response to the mounting threats, Elizabeth’s government began to increase repression of Catholics:
Recusancy fines were enforced more strictly.
Laws against harbouring Catholic priests were introduced.
Government agents were used to monitor known recusant households.
The concept of loyal Catholicism became untenable in the face of perceived papal hostility.
This shift marked the end of the early Elizabethan period of relative tolerance. The Church of England became more rigidly Protestant, and the groundwork was laid for decades of sectarian tension and repression.
By 1570, Elizabeth’s religious Settlement had survived but was under serious strain. Catholic opposition was no longer passive, Puritanism was gathering momentum, and the Crown’s response increasingly relied on coercion. These developments signalled the beginning of a new, more confrontational phase in Elizabethan religious policy.
FAQ
Despite being under house arrest, Mary, Queen of Scots remained a potent symbol for Catholic resistance and foreign intervention. Her royal lineage and Catholic faith made her a legitimate alternative to Elizabeth I in the eyes of many domestic and European Catholics. Her imprisonment did not silence her supporters; rather, it made her a martyr-like figure. Mary maintained regular correspondence with Catholic nobles, foreign monarchs, and ambassadors, allowing her to remain active in political plotting. Several conspiracies, such as the Ridolfi Plot (although after 1570), were already being anticipated due to Mary’s continued influence. The court feared her escape or release could spark civil unrest or even foreign invasion. Additionally, her presence in England undermined Elizabeth’s legitimacy, especially after the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis encouraged Catholics to reject Elizabeth’s authority. The threat Mary posed was as much ideological as it was political—she embodied a competing vision of monarchy and faith.
Regional variation played a significant role in the uneven enforcement of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. In the south and east, particularly in London and surrounding counties, Protestantism had made stronger inroads during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI. As a result, Elizabethan reforms encountered less resistance in these areas. However, in the north and west—especially in counties like Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Durham—Catholicism remained deeply rooted. Local gentry and populations in these regions often passively or actively resisted the Settlement, making enforcement more difficult for royal officials. The Crown’s authority was weaker in these areas, and royal commissioners were sometimes met with hostility. After the Northern Rebellion, Elizabeth’s government recognised this regional defiance and established the revitalised Council of the North to tighten control. The need for harsher penalties, stricter inspections, and the presence of more loyal Protestant officials reflected the difficulty of imposing religious uniformity across a culturally and religiously diverse kingdom.
Foreign ambassadors, particularly from Catholic nations like Spain and France, played a discreet yet influential role in undermining the religious settlement. Although official relations between England and Spain remained formally friendly during Elizabeth’s early reign, Spanish ambassadors such as Bishop de Quadra and Guerau de Spes maintained communication with English Catholics and discontented nobles. These envoys often acted as intermediaries between domestic rebels and foreign courts, gauging the feasibility of intervention or supporting Catholic plots. They also reported on Elizabeth’s court politics, the treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the activities of Protestant radicals. Although Elizabeth tolerated their presence for diplomatic necessity, she was wary of their influence, especially as they could act as agents of the papacy. Their intelligence-gathering and encouragement of internal dissent—without formal breaches of protocol—contributed to growing paranoia among Elizabeth’s councillors and prompted stricter religious controls, anticipating the harsher measures that would follow the pope’s excommunication in 1570.
Elizabeth I’s personal religious views were central to shaping the religious character of the Church of England, and this had complex effects on its stability. She preferred a moderate, inclusive Protestantism, combining reformed doctrine with traditional ritual elements. Her resistance to more radical Puritan changes—such as abolishing clerical vestments and hierarchical structures—reflected her desire for a unified national church rather than theological purity. Elizabeth’s caution and political pragmatism avoided alienating moderate Catholics and conservatives early in her reign. However, this compromise approach also frustrated Puritans, who saw it as a betrayal of true reform. Moreover, her refusal to marry or name a successor unsettled many, who feared Catholic restoration upon her death. Elizabeth’s reluctance to pursue aggressive religious persecution before 1570 allowed limited space for dissent but also signalled indecisiveness. Her balancing act maintained superficial stability, but deeper religious divisions remained unresolved, leaving the Church vulnerable to growing opposition from both Catholic recusants and Protestant radicals.
The suppression of the Northern Rebellion marked a shift in how the Elizabethan government approached the presence and influence of Catholic clergy. Before 1569, Elizabeth’s policy was relatively lenient, hoping for gradual assimilation of Catholics through conformity. However, the rebellion—backed by Catholic motives and featuring the celebration of Mass—exposed the enduring loyalty of some priests and communities to Rome. In response, the government began to tighten its grip on clerical activity. Suspicion fell on seminary-trained priests, particularly those educated abroad, who were seen as agents of subversion. From this period onward, greater scrutiny was placed on clergy appointments, ensuring bishops and parish priests were loyal to the Crown and Settlement. Educational institutions like Oxford and Cambridge came under pressure to promote reformed doctrine and produce Protestant clerics. There was also increased support for catechising the laity, aiming to counter underground Catholic teachings. Thus, the rebellion catalysed a more interventionist and suspicious approach to religious education and clerical influence.
Practice Questions
‘Mary, Queen of Scots posed the greatest threat to Elizabeth I’s religious settlement by 1570.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Mary, Queen of Scots was a major threat to Elizabeth I’s religious settlement due to her strong dynastic claim and status as a Catholic figurehead. Her arrival in England in 1568 energised Catholic opposition and provided a rallying point for discontented nobles, culminating in the Northern Rebellion. However, other factors such as the papal excommunication in 1570 and growing Puritan dissent also significantly destabilised the settlement. While Mary’s presence undoubtedly intensified opposition, it was the combination of foreign encouragement, internal rebellion, and ideological divisions that most seriously undermined religious stability by 1570.
To what extent had the Elizabethan Church been successfully established by 1570?
By 1570, the Elizabethan Church had been structurally established through the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, with most clergy and parishes outwardly conforming. However, religious unity remained fragile. The Northern Rebellion and Regnans in Excelsis revealed the persistence of Catholic resistance, while the emergence of Puritanism exposed tensions within Protestant ranks. Though mechanisms for enforcing conformity existed, deepening ideological divides and growing external threats challenged the Church’s stability. Therefore, while the Elizabethan Church was institutionally in place, its religious authority was not universally accepted, and its foundations were being increasingly contested by both Catholic and Puritan opposition.
