The years 1904 to 1911 marked a decisive shift in European diplomacy as alliance systems solidified and a series of crises escalated tensions among the Great Powers.
The Entente Cordiale, 1904
Origins and Motivations
By the early 20th century, Britain and France had endured centuries of conflict and rivalry, frequently clashing over colonial territories and global influence. However, both nations recognised the benefits of a diplomatic rapprochement:
Britain faced rising threats from Germany’s naval expansion and sought to secure its imperial routes without the distraction of French hostility.
France, still bitter after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and wary of German militarism, aimed to break its diplomatic isolation and gain a reliable European partner.
Informal negotiations resolved longstanding disputes, most notably:
Egypt: Britain’s de facto control of Egypt was formally accepted by France.
Morocco: France’s predominant interest in Morocco was recognised by Britain.
Terms and Impact
Signed in April 1904, the Entente Cordiale consisted of a series of agreements covering colonial spheres of influence and broader cooperation. Although it did not commit either nation to military aid, it:
Ended almost a millennium of intermittent Anglo-French conflict.
Marked a diplomatic shift for Britain from splendid isolation to involvement in continental power balances.
Provided France with reassurance against German aggression, strengthening its diplomatic hand in Europe.
The Entente Cordiale thus laid a crucial foundation for future Anglo-French military coordination, despite being fundamentally an understanding rather than a defensive alliance.
The First Moroccan Crisis, 1905–1906
German Provocation and Objectives
Germany, alarmed by the Entente Cordiale, sought to test the strength of the Anglo-French accord and reassert its influence. In March 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm II dramatically landed at Tangier and declared support for Sultan Abdelaziz’s independence, directly challenging France’s growing influence.
Germany’s aims were twofold:
To weaken France’s position in Morocco, deterring it from further expansion.
To exploit possible divisions between Britain and France, thereby undermining the Entente Cordiale.
The move was intended to demonstrate that Germany could not be ignored in colonial or European affairs.
Escalation and International Response
France, under Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé, initially resisted German demands for an international conference. However, faced with German threats of war and lacking clear British military guarantees, France reluctantly agreed.
The resulting Algeciras Conference convened in January 1906 in southern Spain. Attended by European powers and the United States, it sought to resolve the Moroccan question diplomatically.
Algeciras Conference Outcome
At the conference:
France secured widespread support, especially from Britain, Russia, Italy, and the USA.
Germany found itself isolated, with only Austria-Hungary offering firm backing.
The agreement reaffirmed Moroccan independence but placed policing and financial reforms largely under French and Spanish supervision. Effectively, France’s control remained intact.
Impact on German Foreign Policy
The First Moroccan Crisis was a diplomatic defeat for Germany:
Isolation: Germany’s attempts to break the Entente Cordiale failed, and its belligerence deepened mistrust.
British Alignment: Britain’s solidarity with France convinced Germany that Britain was no longer a neutral actor.
Aggressive Posture: Humiliation fuelled a more assertive German policy, including military expansion and planning to counter perceived encirclement.
The crisis demonstrated the fragility of the European balance and set a precedent for future brinkmanship.
The Formation of the Triple Entente, 1907
Resolving Anglo-Russian Rivalries
Following the Entente Cordiale, Britain turned to settle its differences with Russia. The two empires had repeatedly clashed over Central Asia in the so-called Great Game, competing for dominance in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.
By 1907, Russia was weakened by the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) and internal unrest. Both powers found it pragmatic to reduce tension:
Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) divided Persia into spheres of influence (north for Russia, south for Britain, a neutral zone in between).
Disputes over Afghanistan and Tibet were also regulated.
This agreement removed key flashpoints between Britain and Russia, complementing the existing Franco-Russian Alliance and the Entente Cordiale.
Emergence of Opposing Blocs
The outcome was the Triple Entente — an informal but strategically significant alignment of Britain, France, and Russia:
Unlike the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy), the Triple Entente was not a formal military pact but created a strong diplomatic front.
It signalled a clear division of Europe into two hostile camps, increasing the danger that any regional conflict could rapidly expand.
The Triple Entente constrained German and Austrian diplomatic manoeuvres and reinforced perceptions of encirclement in Berlin and Vienna.
The Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911
Background: French Consolidation in Morocco
By 1911, France faced internal revolts against the Sultan’s rule in Morocco. French troops occupied Fez to protect European residents and restore order. Germany viewed this as an unacceptable expansion of French power, violating the spirit of the Algeciras Act.
The Agadir Incident
To force concessions, Germany dispatched the Panther, a gunboat, to the Moroccan port of Agadir in July 1911. Officially sent to protect German citizens, its true aim was to pressure France into compensating Germany with African territory elsewhere.
Britain interpreted this aggressive gesture as an attempt to establish a German naval base on the Atlantic, threatening vital shipping lanes.
International Tension and Resolution
The crisis pushed Europe to the brink of war:
British warships were readied.
Anti-German sentiment soared in Britain and France.
Diplomatic negotiations, driven by fear of conflict, defused the situation.
In the November 1911 agreement, Germany accepted French control of Morocco in exchange for territory in the French Congo. However, Germany’s gains were viewed as inadequate compared to the diplomatic costs.
Consequences
Increased Entente Unity: Britain and France further coordinated military and naval strategies.
Damage to German Prestige: Germany’s brinkmanship backfired again, heightening the perception of Germany as a destabilising force.
Public Opinion Shift: In Britain especially, the episode hardened public and political resolve to resist German ambitions.
The Intensification of Polarisation in Europe
Role of the Alliance System
The crises of 1905–06 and 1911 underscored how rigid alliances reduced diplomatic flexibility:
Triple Entente members increasingly acted in concert.
Triple Alliance powers (especially Germany and Austria-Hungary) responded with greater suspicion and rearmament.
The sense of inevitability grew: an incident involving one member could draw in all its allies, turning a regional dispute into a general war.
Impact on Military Planning and Diplomacy
The alignment of the alliances spurred:
Accelerated arms races, particularly naval competition between Britain and Germany.
Joint military planning, such as the Anglo-French naval agreements.
A diplomatic atmosphere in which crises were managed less by negotiation and more by shows of force and threats.
Broader Effects on European Stability
These early crises demonstrated that:
Colonial tensions could destabilise Europe itself.
Diplomatic failures entrenched rivalries instead of resolving them.
Mutual suspicion became a dominant force in international relations, eroding trust and increasing reliance on military solutions.
By the end of 1911, Europe was deeply polarised:
The Entente powers viewed Germany as an aggressor seeking domination.
Germany and Austria-Hungary felt surrounded and compelled to assert themselves before their relative power declined further.
By forging tight-knit diplomatic alignments and responding to crises with forceful tactics, Europe’s major powers laid the groundwork for conflict on a scale previously unimagined. The crises and alliances of 1904–1911 did not themselves cause the First World War but made it increasingly difficult to prevent.
FAQ
Germany underestimated the strength of the Entente Cordiale, viewing it as a superficial colonial settlement rather than a step towards genuine diplomatic alignment. German leaders, particularly Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Bülow, believed Britain still preferred isolation and would not risk conflict over French ambitions in North Africa. They calculated that by championing Moroccan independence, Germany would expose divisions, humiliate France, and force Britain to remain neutral or even side with Germany to restrain French expansion. This strategy overlooked Britain’s shifting priorities: Germany’s naval buildup and economic rivalry had become Britain’s primary concerns. Britain increasingly saw Germany, not France, as the greater threat to its imperial and naval security. Consequently, when Germany challenged France in Morocco, Britain chose to back France diplomatically and militarily if necessary. Germany’s misreading of Britain’s resolve and the importance Britain attached to maintaining a European balance of power meant the gamble ultimately strengthened the Entente instead of fracturing it.
The Moroccan Crises, particularly the Agadir incident in 1911, dramatically influenced Britain’s perception of German intentions and spurred concrete changes in naval strategy and coordination with France. Before these crises, Britain focused on maintaining naval supremacy primarily to defend its empire and home waters independently. The Agadir incident, where Germany’s deployment of the Panther gunboat seemed like a direct threat to Atlantic trade routes, convinced British policymakers that German naval power aimed not just at regional dominance but at challenging Britain’s global interests. In response, Britain shifted naval resources, strengthening the Royal Navy’s presence in home waters and the North Sea while relying more on France to patrol the Mediterranean. Secret staff talks between British and French military leaders were initiated, planning for joint operations in the event of war with Germany. These steps, while unofficial, laid the groundwork for coordinated responses that would later materialise during the First World War, reflecting a significant departure from Britain’s earlier independent defence posture.
Public opinion played a critical but often underestimated role in shaping governmental responses during both Moroccan Crises. In Britain, newspapers and influential political figures used the crises to highlight Germany’s perceived aggressiveness and threat to European peace. Sensational reporting of the Kaiser’s provocative behaviour in Tangier in 1905 and the deployment of the Panther to Agadir in 1911 stirred fear that Germany intended to dominate Europe and endanger Britain’s maritime supremacy. Popular hostility towards Germany hardened political resolve, limiting any inclination to compromise. In France, the press and nationalists saw the crises as fresh reminders of German bullying, recalling memories of defeat in 1871. The public demanded strong government action to protect French honour and colonial rights. The growth of mass media meant that foreign policy crises were no longer purely elite diplomatic affairs; domestic audiences demanded firmness and saw concessions as humiliating. This pressured leaders in both countries to resist German demands, solidifying the Entente and feeding an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion across Europe.
Kaiser Wilhelm II’s personal diplomacy and erratic interventions significantly shaped the trajectory and outcome of alliance tensions from 1904 to 1911. His dramatic visit to Tangier in 1905, where he rode on horseback through the streets proclaiming support for Moroccan independence, was a calculated display intended to signal Germany’s power but was widely perceived as clumsy and provocative. Wilhelm’s impulsive and theatrical style undermined more measured diplomacy from his advisers. During the Second Moroccan Crisis, his insistence on sending the Panther gunboat was seen by Britain as gunboat diplomacy at its worst, rekindling naval fears. Wilhelm’s tendency to override experienced diplomats and escalate tensions without a clear endgame led to diplomatic isolation. Allies like Austria-Hungary offered only tepid backing while neutral powers sympathised with France and Britain. Ultimately, his unpredictable personal role reinforced Britain’s perception that Germany was unreliable and aggressive, accelerating the drift towards a rigidly polarised Europe. His actions vividly demonstrated how individual leadership could destabilise an entire continent’s diplomatic balance.
Italy’s participation in the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary was always uneasy due to conflicting ambitions in North Africa and the Balkans. The Moroccan Crises highlighted Italy’s reluctance to be dragged into confrontations that did not align with its interests. During both crises, Italy provided minimal support to Germany’s aggressive diplomatic manoeuvres, partly because Italy had covertly made agreements with France recognising mutual colonial claims in North Africa, undermining the supposed unity of the Triple Alliance. Italy’s secret arrangements meant it quietly benefited from France’s consolidation in Morocco while Germany antagonised Britain and France without real Italian backing. This divergence revealed Italy’s opportunistic approach: it would remain formally allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary but would not risk war over German colonial ambitions. Consequently, Britain and France increasingly saw Italy as a potential partner rather than a hostile power. This diplomatic ambivalence weakened the Triple Alliance’s credibility and foreshadowed Italy’s eventual decision to join the Entente Powers in 1915 during the First World War.
Practice Questions
Explain the significance of the Entente Cordiale and the Moroccan Crises in the development of alliance systems in Europe between 1904 and 1911.
The Entente Cordiale ended Anglo-French colonial rivalry and laid groundwork for Britain and France’s diplomatic and eventual military cooperation. The First Moroccan Crisis tested this understanding but instead strengthened it, isolating Germany. The Second Moroccan Crisis reinforced Britain’s suspicion of Germany’s aggressive policies, leading to closer naval and military collaboration. Together, these events solidified the Triple Entente, deepening divisions in Europe and increasing German fears of encirclement. The crises proved that disputes over colonial affairs could escalate into European confrontations, demonstrating how alliances reduced flexibility and made major conflict more likely.
Assess how the Moroccan Crises intensified polarisation among European powers in the years before the First World War.
The Moroccan Crises showcased Germany’s willingness to use brinkmanship, alarming Britain and France. The First Crisis failed to weaken the Entente Cordiale and instead pushed Britain and France closer, showing Germany’s diplomatic isolation. The Second Crisis, or Agadir Crisis, provoked strong British opposition, leading to naval agreements and joint military planning with France. These developments reinforced the perception of two hostile blocs: the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance. Consequently, mistrust deepened, military preparations accelerated and Europe became increasingly polarised, making diplomatic resolution of future disputes more difficult and paving the way towards general war.
