The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 dramatically weakened Ottoman control, empowered Serbia, and fuelled European tensions, ultimately contributing to the collapse of pre-war diplomatic stability.
Causes of the First Balkan War (1912)
Decline of Ottoman Power
By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire had become increasingly weak, both administratively and militarily. Corruption, nationalist uprisings, and territorial losses had eroded its authority, particularly in the Balkans. Local populations—Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Montenegrins—saw an opportunity to assert independence and expand territories at the expense of the Ottomans.
Rise of Balkan Nationalism
Balkan states were motivated by nationalist ambitions to liberate their ethnic kin and expand borders. The idea of a ‘Greater Serbia’ or ‘Greater Bulgaria’ underpinned regional aspirations. The region’s ethnic patchwork made border disputes inevitable.
Formation of the Balkan League
In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro formed the Balkan League, a military alliance designed to coordinate attacks on Ottoman-held lands in Europe. Russian diplomacy subtly encouraged this bloc, hoping to increase Slavic influence and weaken the Ottomans, whom Russia viewed as a rival in the Black Sea region.
Ottoman Weakness and Poor Diplomacy
The Ottomans misjudged the unity and resolve of the Balkan League. Internal divisions, poor leadership, and outdated military infrastructure made the empire vulnerable to a coordinated assault.
Outcomes of the First Balkan War
Swift Military Success
The Balkan League rapidly overwhelmed Ottoman forces. Major cities, including Thessaloniki and Monastir, fell quickly. The decisive siege of Adrianople (Edirne) symbolised Ottoman defeat in Europe, apart from a small territory around Constantinople.
Treaty of London (1913)
The war concluded with the Treaty of London (May 1913):
The Ottomans ceded almost all their European territories west of the Midia-Enos line.
Albania declared independence to prevent Serbian access to the Adriatic Sea—a decision supported by Austria-Hungary and Italy to curb Serbian expansion.
Unresolved Tensions Among Victors
Victory sowed seeds of discord within the League. Serbia and Greece gained lands they deemed fair; Bulgaria, however, felt cheated, especially over Macedonia, which both Serbia and Greece retained large parts of. These grievances laid the groundwork for the next conflict.
Causes of the Second Balkan War (1913)
Bulgarian Dissatisfaction
Bulgaria’s dissatisfaction with the division of Macedonia was the central cause. Feeling that Serbia and Greece had seized more than agreed, Bulgaria launched a surprise attack against them in June 1913.
Opportunism of Other Powers
Romania and the Ottoman Empire opportunistically joined the conflict, attacking Bulgaria to gain territories or recover lost ground. Bulgaria found itself fighting on multiple fronts.
Outcomes of the Second Balkan War
Bulgaria’s Defeat
Bulgaria’s attack backfired. Overstretched and diplomatically isolated, it suffered quick defeats from a coalition of Serbia, Greece, Romania, and the Ottomans.
Treaty of Bucharest (1913)
The Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) redrew Balkan borders:
Serbia emerged significantly stronger, annexing most of Macedonia.
Greece solidified control over southern Macedonia and Epirus.
Romania gained Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria.
Bulgaria lost territory and prestige, breeding lasting resentment.
Treaty of Constantinople
Separately, Bulgaria and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of Constantinople, through which the Ottomans regained Adrianople (Edirne).
Serbia’s Growing Influence and Austria-Hungary’s Fears
Serbia’s Expansion
The Balkan Wars transformed Serbia from a small kingdom into the dominant Slavic power in the region. Its population, territory, and army size increased dramatically.
Access to new lands fuelled pan-Slavic ambitions.
Serbia positioned itself as the defender and unifier of South Slavs, challenging Austria-Hungary’s authority over its own Slavic populations.
Austria-Hungary’s Strategic Dilemma
Austria-Hungary perceived Serbia’s expansion as a direct threat:
A stronger Serbia encouraged Slavic nationalism within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially among Croats, Slovenes, and Bosnian Serbs.
Austria-Hungary feared that Serbia, emboldened by Russian backing, could destabilise its multi-ethnic empire.
Austro-Hungarian officials debated preventive military action against Serbia, setting the stage for a confrontational approach in future crises.
Failure of the Great Powers to Contain Balkan Nationalism
Weak Diplomacy and Rival Ambitions
The Great Powers—Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia—failed to impose a stable solution on the volatile Balkans. Reasons included:
Conflicting interests: Russia supported Slavic states like Serbia, while Austria-Hungary sought to contain them.
Britain and France were preoccupied with colonial affairs and the naval race with Germany.
Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary, provided diplomatic backing but avoided direct Balkan entanglement.
London Conferences
Efforts at international mediation through the London Conferences (1912–13) produced fragile settlements but did not resolve underlying nationalist aspirations or rival territorial claims.
Legacy of Instability
The settlement left a power vacuum and unresolved grievances:
Bulgaria’s defeat bred a desire for revenge.
Albania’s new borders failed to reflect complex ethnic realities, fuelling disputes.
Serbia’s ambitions clashed irreversibly with Austria-Hungary’s need for internal stability.
Impact on European Alliances and Military Planning
Heightened Tensions
The wars confirmed that Balkan nationalism could ignite wider conflicts. Austria-Hungary felt compelled to respond more aggressively to Slavic threats, while Russia pledged stronger support for Serbia.
Military Reassessments
Major powers drew lessons:
Austria-Hungary and Germany discussed rapid mobilisation plans to pre-empt Russian intervention if Balkan crises escalated.
Serbia modernised its military, emboldened by its victories.
Russia accelerated military reforms, determined to avoid diplomatic humiliation like during the Bosnian Crisis.
Polarisation of Alliances
The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) hardened their mutual suspicions.
France and Britain were drawn into Balkan affairs indirectly, owing to their alliance with Russia.
Road to 1914
The unresolved animosities and emboldened Serbia left the region on a knife-edge. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo in 1914, Austria-Hungary moved to crush Serbia once and for all—a decision rooted deeply in the lessons and tensions of the Balkan Wars.
Key Points for Revision
First Balkan War (1912): Balkan League vs Ottomans; quick victory; Treaty of London; Albania created.
Second Balkan War (1913): Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece; defeated by neighbours; Treaty of Bucharest; Bulgaria lost land.
Serbia’s rise: Expanded territory; posed threat to Austria-Hungary’s internal stability.
Great Powers: Failed to control nationalist movements; rival ambitions blocked effective diplomacy.
Impact: Led to sharper alliance divisions; military plans adjusted for rapid mobilisation; tensions laid groundwork for the July Crisis of 1914.
FAQ
Montenegro, though the smallest member of the Balkan League, played an outsized role in initiating the First Balkan War. Keen to expand its territory at the expense of the Ottomans, Montenegro declared war first in October 1912, effectively forcing the hand of the other League members. Its attack on the Ottoman stronghold of Scutari (Shkodër) became one of the most prolonged sieges of the conflict. Montenegro’s determined but under-resourced assault tied down Ottoman forces and pressured its allies to advance more rapidly elsewhere. The protracted siege caused friction among the allies, particularly with Serbia, which sent troops to assist but also aimed to control the region itself. After fierce fighting, the city fell, but international pressure, especially from Austria-Hungary and Italy, forced Montenegro to withdraw, and an independent Albania was created to block Slavic access to the Adriatic. Montenegro’s ambitions and stubbornness exemplified the local rivalries that complicated unity within the Balkan League and foreshadowed disputes that would re-emerge in the interwar period.
The creation of Albania in 1913 dramatically altered the regional balance by preventing Serbia from gaining direct access to the Adriatic Sea, which was a major strategic goal for Serbian expansionists. Austria-Hungary and Italy strongly backed Albania’s independence because both feared that a Serbian-controlled coastline would strengthen Slavic influence and give Russia indirect naval reach in the Mediterranean. The imposed creation of a neutral Albania effectively blocked Serbia’s maritime ambitions, confining it to a landlocked position and fostering deep resentment in Belgrade. This settlement frustrated Serbian aspirations and intensified anti-Austrian sentiment, as Vienna was seen as the main architect of this limitation. Moreover, the hastily drawn borders ignored Albania’s complex ethnic realities, leaving large Albanian populations in Kosovo and Macedonia under Serbian or Montenegrin rule, which fuelled tensions and guerrilla conflicts. Overall, Albania’s establishment served as a diplomatic stopgap, but it increased hostility between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, deepening the seeds of conflict that would erupt in 1914.
The Balkan Wars revealed how quickly localised conflicts could escalate and demonstrated the volatility of nationalist fervour in Eastern Europe. Austria-Hungary concluded that it needed faster mobilisation and more decisive plans to prevent being outflanked by Russia or overwhelmed by Balkan states like Serbia. Vienna revised its war plans to consider a simultaneous attack on Serbia while deterring Russian intervention. The army command advocated for more aggressive pre-emptive action if Serbia threatened its stability again. Meanwhile, Russia, humiliated in the Bosnian Crisis and cautious during the Balkan Wars, recognised its military unpreparedness. It accelerated modernisation of its army and rail network to mobilise troops more rapidly. Russia also reaffirmed its commitment to protect Serbia as the key Slavic ally, strengthening diplomatic and military ties. Both empires thus recalibrated their strategies, prioritising rapid deployment and cross-border operations. These adjustments directly influenced the speed and scale of the July Crisis mobilisation in 1914, turning a regional confrontation into a general European war.
The Balkan Wars severely damaged relations between Bulgaria and its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria’s dissatisfaction with the division of Macedonia after the First Balkan War turned allies into bitter rivals almost overnight. Bulgaria believed it deserved more of Macedonia, which Serbia and Greece occupied in defiance of earlier secret agreements. In response, Bulgaria attacked Serbian and Greek positions in June 1913 without consulting other powers—a reckless move that triggered the Second Balkan War. Bulgaria’s defeat resulted in significant territorial losses and humiliation. Serbia and Greece forged closer ties at Bulgaria’s expense, and Romania’s opportunistic invasion during the conflict left Bulgaria feeling encircled and isolated. This diplomatic isolation pushed Bulgaria away from the Balkan alliance system and made it increasingly receptive to German and Austro-Hungarian overtures during the First World War. Consequently, in 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, seeking revenge and the restoration of lost territories. The breakdown in trust within the former League vividly demonstrates how territorial disputes and betrayal among allies can transform the regional alliance network.
The Balkan Wars had devastating consequences for civilians, intensifying ethnic tensions and causing widespread suffering across the region. As armies advanced and borders shifted, communities found themselves under new rule overnight, often from rival ethnic groups. Reports of atrocities, forced expulsions, and massacres were widespread, with all sides committing violence against perceived enemies and minorities. Entire villages were burned, and populations fled to escape reprisals or conscription. The wars generated hundreds of thousands of refugees, straining local economies and causing food shortages and disease outbreaks in overcrowded camps and towns. Additionally, the wars hardened ethnic divisions and sowed mistrust among different communities, fuelling nationalist resentment that would endure throughout the 20th century. The legacy of violence and displacement created deep-seated grievances, particularly in contested areas like Macedonia, Kosovo, and Thrace. This volatile environment made it easier for extremist nationalist groups to recruit supporters, which would later contribute to the region’s continued instability and repeated outbreaks of conflict in the decades to follow.
Practice Questions
Explain why the Balkan Wars contributed to the breakdown of peace in Europe.
The Balkan Wars fuelled instability by empowering Serbia, threatening Austria-Hungary’s fragile empire, and exposing the weakness of Ottoman and Bulgarian control. Serbia’s rise inflamed Slavic nationalism within Austria-Hungary, prompting Vienna to consider harsh measures. The Great Powers failed to manage the new balance, deepening rivalries and polarising alliances. Austria-Hungary’s fear of a stronger Serbia, backed by Russia, meant future Balkan disputes risked drawing in the major European powers. The wars proved Balkan crises could not be contained locally, setting a dangerous precedent that directly influenced the escalation to general war in 1914.
Analyse the significance of Serbia’s growing influence after the Balkan Wars.
Serbia’s expansion after the Balkan Wars significantly shifted the balance of power in the Balkans, emerging as the leading Slavic nation challenging Austria-Hungary’s authority. Its enlarged territory and army emboldened pan-Slavic ambitions and inspired Slavic minorities within the Austro-Hungarian Empire to seek unification. This alarmed Vienna, which viewed Serbia as a direct threat to its stability and unity. Consequently, Austria-Hungary became determined to curb Serbian power, even considering pre-emptive war. Serbia’s strengthened position, supported by Russia, undermined any chance of peaceful resolution, making future conflict in the region highly likely.
