The period from 1865 to 1890 was defined by governmental instability, presidential weakness, and political corruption following the devastation of the American Civil War.
Weaknesses of the Federal Government After the Civil War
Andrew Johnson’s Impeachment and Reconstruction Failures
Andrew Johnson, who succeeded Abraham Lincoln after his assassination in 1865, became one of the most controversial figures of the Reconstruction era. A Southern Democrat who opposed secession but held deeply racist views, Johnson clashed repeatedly with the Radical Republicans in Congress.
Lenient Reconstruction Policies: Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction was notably soft on the South. He offered amnesty to many former Confederates and permitted Southern states to enact Black Codes, which restricted the freedoms of newly emancipated African Americans.
Opposition to the 14th Amendment: Johnson vetoed civil rights legislation and opposed the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to former slaves.
Impeachment Crisis: In 1868, Johnson violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. This led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives. He narrowly avoided removal by a single Senate vote, exposing the deep constitutional crisis and highlighting his lack of political support.
Lack of Federal Control in the South
Despite the victory of the Union, the federal government struggled to enforce its authority in the former Confederate states:
Military Reconstruction Acts (1867) divided the South into five military districts, each governed by Union generals. However, these measures met resistance and were often undermined.
Southern white elites maintained significant local control, often using violence and intimidation to suppress African-American rights and Republican power.
The Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups emerged as formidable obstacles to federal efforts, conducting campaigns of terror against Black citizens and their allies.
Undermining of Congressional Reconstruction
Radical Republicans in Congress initially had ambitious plans to reshape Southern society:
Reconstruction Acts and constitutional amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th) aimed to secure freedom and equality for African Americans.
Johnson's vetoes and pardons significantly weakened these reforms.
After the Compromise of 1877, which ended Reconstruction by withdrawing federal troops from the South, Democratic “Redeemers” took control, reversing many gains and cementing white supremacy.
Ulysses S. Grant’s Presidency and Political Corruption
Grant’s Election and Early Promise
Ulysses S. Grant, elected in 1868, was a war hero with broad public appeal. Initially viewed as a unifying figure, his presidency soon became synonymous with corruption and ineffectiveness.
Major Scandals
Credit Mobilier (1872): A construction company linked to Union Pacific Railroad executives used insider information to secure contracts and bribe members of Congress.
Whiskey Ring (1875): Treasury officials and distillers conspired to avoid paying excise taxes, costing the government millions. Grant’s private secretary, Orville Babcock, was implicated but acquitted.
Indian Ring: Secretary of War William Belknap accepted bribes for the trading rights on Native American reservations, further eroding public trust.
Failure to Protect African-American Rights
While Grant occasionally defended Black rights—most notably through the Enforcement Acts (1870–71) to suppress the KKK—his support waned over time:
Inconsistent enforcement and an overreliance on military power without broader structural reforms weakened the federal response.
Grant prioritised economic stability and party loyalty over civil rights by his second term.
Southern Democrats reclaimed power, initiating the “Redemption” period, which saw widespread disenfranchisement and segregation.
The Era of Weak Presidents
Limited Executive Authority
Following Lincoln’s strong wartime leadership, subsequent presidents from Johnson to Benjamin Harrison wielded comparatively little executive power:
The assassination of a transformative leader created a power vacuum, and no successor matched Lincoln’s political skill or moral authority.
Congress dominated federal governance, especially during Reconstruction and the early Gilded Age, curbing presidential initiatives and maintaining legislative supremacy.
Political Inertia and Status Quo
Between 1869 and 1893, the White House was occupied by Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, and Benjamin Harrison—presidents often seen as passive administrators rather than dynamic reformers:
Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81): Known for ending Reconstruction and implementing civil service reforms, but unable to resolve sectional and racial tensions.
James Garfield (1881): Assassinated after only a few months in office, highlighting political instability.
Chester Arthur (1881–85): Surprised many by championing reform with the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), though overall governance remained lacklustre.
Benjamin Harrison (1889–93): Oversaw a surge in federal spending and introduced the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), but failed to stem political corruption or deepen executive authority.
Dominance of Congress
During this era, Congress was the principal engine of federal policy:
Key figures like Speaker Thomas B. Reed and Senator Roscoe Conkling shaped legislation and controlled party patronage.
The frequent turnover in presidential administrations led to a lack of long-term vision or policy continuity.
Political Corruption in the Gilded Age
The Spoils System and Patronage
The Gilded Age was marked by patronage politics, where elected officials rewarded supporters with government jobs regardless of merit:
This system, dubbed the “spoils system,” led to incompetence, inefficiency, and deep factionalism within parties.
Key party leaders, known as “bosses,” controlled appointments and wielded outsized influence over public administration.
Tammany Hall and Urban Corruption
One of the most notorious political machines was Tammany Hall in New York City:
Led by Boss William M. Tweed, Tammany Hall manipulated elections, embezzled city funds, and distributed favours in exchange for loyalty.
At its height, the organisation stole an estimated $30–200 million from public coffers.
Tweed’s eventual downfall in 1873, due to journalistic exposes and reformist pressure, highlighted both the depth and visibility of political corruption.
Civil Service Reform
Widespread frustration with patronage prompted calls for reform:
The assassination of President Garfield (1881) by a disgruntled office-seeker catalysed a national movement to curb the spoils system.
The resulting Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) marked a significant shift, introducing competitive examinations for certain government jobs and protecting employees from being fired for political reasons.
Though limited in scope, this act symbolised a growing demand for a more professional and accountable government.
Influence of Big Business
Corporate influence pervaded the political sphere during the Gilded Age:
Wealthy industrialists, or “robber barons,” such as Cornelius Vanderbilt and Jay Gould, donated heavily to politicians to secure favourable legislation and deregulation.
Campaign contributions often translated into policy decisions aligned with business interests, undermining democratic accountability.
By the end of the 19th century, the American political landscape had undergone considerable turmoil. The Federal Government, once tested by civil war, emerged as structurally intact but politically weakened. While efforts were made to address corruption and strengthen executive power, many of these reforms would only take root in the Progressive Era that followed. The legacies of Johnson and Grant, alongside the era’s broader dysfunction, revealed the challenges of post-war governance in a rapidly industrialising nation.
FAQ
The Supreme Court significantly restricted the impact of Reconstruction through a series of rulings that undermined civil rights legislation and federal enforcement powers. One of the most consequential cases was The Slaughterhouse Cases (1873), which interpreted the 14th Amendment narrowly, limiting federal protection of citizens’ rights. This meant that most civil rights issues were considered to fall under state, not federal, jurisdiction—crippling federal authority in the South. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Court overturned the convictions of white supremacists involved in the Colfax Massacre, arguing the federal government lacked authority to act unless states failed to do so. Similarly, The Civil Rights Cases (1883) struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875, ruling that the 14th Amendment did not give Congress the power to prohibit racial discrimination by private individuals or organisations. These decisions emboldened Southern states to ignore Reconstruction laws and institutionalise segregation with little fear of federal intervention.
The Compromise of 1877 had a profound impact on the trajectory of federal politics and marked the formal end of Reconstruction. It emerged from the disputed presidential election of 1876 between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. With no clear electoral winner, a secret deal was brokered: Democrats agreed to concede the presidency to Hayes in return for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. Once the troops were removed, Republican governments in Southern states collapsed, and so-called “Redeemer” Democrats—many of whom had Confederate ties—regained political control. This shift allowed Southern states to reverse the gains made during Reconstruction, particularly in regard to African-American civil rights. Federal commitment to enforcing Reconstruction legislation ceased almost entirely. Politically, the compromise restored the tradition of limited federal interference in state affairs, cementing an era of minimal federal intervention and enabling widespread disenfranchisement and segregation of Black Americans throughout the South.
Civil service reform became a central political issue due to widespread public dissatisfaction with the patronage system, where government jobs were awarded based on political loyalty rather than merit. This system bred inefficiency, incompetence, and rampant corruption. High-profile scandals, such as those during Grant’s presidency, exposed the extent to which unqualified individuals held influential positions. The tipping point came with the assassination of President James Garfield in 1881 by Charles Guiteau, a disgruntled office-seeker denied a government post. This tragedy shocked the public and highlighted the dangers of the spoils system. In response, reformers pushed for legislation to professionalise the civil service. The result was the Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883, introduced under President Chester A. Arthur. It established a merit-based system for federal employment, including competitive exams and job protections from political influence. Though initially limited in scope, it marked a significant step towards modernising American bureaucracy and reducing party-based corruption.
Congress asserted its dominance over the presidency in several key ways during the post-Civil War and Gilded Age period. After Lincoln’s assassination, power shifted decisively to a Republican-controlled Congress, which sought to direct Reconstruction policy independently of the executive. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson in 1868 was the clearest assertion of this authority, as it demonstrated Congress’s willingness to punish presidential opposition. Congress passed major Reconstruction legislation over Johnson’s vetoes, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. Later, the Tenure of Office Act was designed specifically to limit Johnson’s influence by restricting his power to remove officials without Senate approval. Even under later presidents, Congress remained powerful—particularly through its control of federal appropriations and appointments. Political stalemate and weak executive leadership allowed congressional committees, party leaders, and speakers of the House to dominate federal governance. This legislative supremacy reflected deep mistrust of presidential power following the Civil War.
Several interrelated factors hindered the federal government’s ability and willingness to protect African-American rights during the Gilded Age. First, the waning political will in the North meant that by the 1870s, many white Northerners prioritised national reconciliation over racial justice. This apathy allowed Southern Democrats to roll back Reconstruction reforms without facing significant opposition. Second, political corruption and partisanship distracted federal attention; administrations like Grant’s were engulfed in scandal and preferred to avoid contentious civil rights enforcement. Third, judicial limitations from the Supreme Court, such as the rulings in The Civil Rights Cases (1883) and United States v. Cruikshank (1876), drastically restricted federal power to intervene against racial discrimination. Fourth, the Compromise of 1877 ended military oversight in the South, effectively surrendering the region to white supremacist rule. Finally, institutional racism within the government and broader society meant that many officials and citizens did not consider African-American rights a priority, enabling continued oppression.
Practice Questions
‘The main reason for the weakness of the federal government in the years 1865–1890 was the poor leadership of US presidents.’ Assess the validity of this view.
While presidential leadership was a key factor, it was not the sole cause of federal weakness. Johnson’s defiance of Congress and Grant’s tolerance of corruption undermined federal authority. However, Congressional dominance, sectional resistance in the South, and entrenched patronage politics also played critical roles. The enduring power of state governments, especially in the former Confederacy, and political inertia within a fractured system, all contributed to a limited and ineffective federal presence. Therefore, although presidential weakness was important, broader structural and political challenges were equally responsible for the federal government's ineffectiveness during this period.
To what extent was political corruption the defining feature of the Gilded Age, 1865–1890?
Political corruption was a defining feature of the Gilded Age, epitomised by scandals such as the Whiskey Ring and the excesses of Tammany Hall. Patronage and the spoils system dominated politics, limiting reform and undermining public trust. However, other features—such as weak presidential leadership, the enduring effects of Reconstruction, and Congressional inertia—were also central. Corruption fuelled calls for civil service reform, indicating its prominence, yet the broader context of post-war division and socio-economic transformation shaped political life. Thus, while corruption was crucial, it must be seen alongside other structural weaknesses of the era.
