The period 1890–1920 saw dramatic political transformation as rural and urban discontent catalysed movements for reform that reshaped American government and society.
The Rise of Populism
Rural Discontent and the Agrarian Crisis
During the late 19th century, American farmers—particularly in the South and West—faced declining crop prices, rising railroad freight rates, exploitative credit systems, and mounting debt. Many felt abandoned by the federal government, which was seen to favour industrialists and bankers over agricultural workers.
Overproduction and falling prices: Mechanisation and land expansion led to crop surpluses, depressing market prices.
Railroad monopolies charged excessive shipping fees, particularly for remote farmers with no competition.
Banks and credit: Farmers depended on loans but were frequently charged high interest rates and faced foreclosure.
This climate bred widespread economic frustration, leading to organised political resistance.
The Farmers’ Alliances
These grassroots groups emerged across the South and Midwest to advocate for cooperative farming, better credit systems, and political reforms. They formed the foundation for what would become a national political movement.
Key demands included regulation of railroads, federal sub-treasuries to provide cheap loans, and a more equitable currency system.
The People’s (Populist) Party
In 1892, agrarian and labour activists united to form the People’s Party, or Populist Party, to challenge the dominance of the Democrats and Republicans.
Core Populist demands:
Free coinage of silver to increase the money supply and combat deflation.
A graduated income tax to replace the regressive tariff system.
Government ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephones.
Direct election of Senators (instead of state legislatures).
Introduction of referendums and initiatives to expand democratic participation.
While the Populists never secured national power, they garnered support in Western and Southern states and gained congressional seats. The 1896 presidential bid of William Jennings Bryan, who fused Democratic and Populist platforms, marked the peak of Populist influence—though he lost to Republican William McKinley, signalling a defeat for the movement’s ambitions.
The Progressives and Urban Reform
Emergence of Progressivism
By the 1900s, attention turned from rural grievances to the problems of urbanisation, industrialisation, and corruption in America’s rapidly growing cities. The Progressive movement sought to modernise society, government, and the economy through rational, science-based reform.
Key characteristics of Progressivism:
Advocated stronger government intervention to address social and economic issues.
Sought to restore integrity to politics through democratic reform.
Championed social justice, particularly for immigrants, workers, and women.
Focused on urban issues, such as sanitation, education, housing, and labour conditions.
Unlike the Populists, Progressives were largely middle-class, urban reformers, including journalists, professionals, and politicians.
Muckrakers and Public Awareness
Investigative journalists known as muckrakers played a key role in exposing corruption and corporate abuse.
Ida Tarbell revealed the monopolistic practices of Standard Oil.
Lincoln Steffens uncovered municipal corruption in The Shame of the Cities.
Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle led to food safety reforms after detailing unsanitary conditions in meatpacking.
These exposés spurred public outrage and political pressure for reform.
Progressive Presidents and Federal Reform
William Jennings Bryan
Although never president, Bryan remained a powerful Democratic voice. His advocacy for silver coinage, anti-imperialism, and moral reform positioned him as a moral figure of the progressive left. As Secretary of State under Wilson, he supported peaceful diplomacy and opposed military intervention.
Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)
Roosevelt redefined the presidency as an instrument of reform, expanding federal power to mediate between labour and capital.
Key initiatives:
Trust-busting: Used the Sherman Antitrust Act to dismantle monopolies such as Northern Securities.
Introduced the concept of the "Square Deal": fairness in government, business, and consumer protection.
Passed the Hepburn Act (1906) to regulate railroad rates.
Backed the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act (1906) to address public health.
Roosevelt believed government should regulate rather than dismantle capitalism, aiming for "regulated capitalism" rather than socialism.
William Howard Taft (1909–1913)
Taft continued trust-busting, initiating nearly twice as many antitrust suits as Roosevelt. However, he was less publicly assertive, and his conservatism alienated progressive Republicans.
Key actions:
Supported the 16th Amendment (federal income tax) and 17th Amendment (direct election of Senators).
Broke up Standard Oil (1911).
Frustrated reformers by siding with conservative elements in Congress and failing to lower tariffs significantly.
The divide between Taft and Roosevelt led to a Republican split in 1912, with Roosevelt forming the Progressive “Bull Moose” Party.
Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921)
Elected with Roosevelt and Taft splitting the Republican vote, Wilson’s "New Freedom" agenda focused on limiting big business and restoring economic competition.
Major reforms:
Federal Reserve Act (1913): established the central banking system to stabilise the economy.
Clayton Antitrust Act (1914): strengthened antitrust laws, exempting unions from being classified as trusts.
Federal Trade Commission (1914): created to oversee and prevent unfair business practices.
Underwood Tariff (1913): reduced tariffs and introduced a graduated income tax.
Pushed for labour protections, including child labour restrictions and the eight-hour workday for railway workers (Adamson Act, 1916).
Wilson’s idealistic domestic policy was later overshadowed by World War I, but his reform legacy was significant.
National and State-Level Reforms
Labour Legislation
Progressives supported efforts to protect workers from industrial exploitation and poor conditions, particularly women and children.
Muller v. Oregon (1908) upheld limits on female working hours, using sociological evidence.
Laws on child labour were introduced at the state level, though federal laws were often struck down by the Supreme Court.
States passed factory safety laws, compensation schemes, and maximum working hour limits.
Labour unions, though sometimes opposed by government, gained strength during this era, advocating for fair wages, safe conditions, and the right to organise.
Antitrust and Economic Regulation
Federal and state governments passed legislation to curb corporate power:
The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) was initially weak but used aggressively by Roosevelt and Taft.
The Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) closed loopholes and empowered the federal government to prosecute price-fixing and monopolisation.
States introduced public utility commissions to regulate prices for water, electricity, and transport.
These reforms marked a shift from laissez-faire to regulated capitalism.
Electoral and Political Reform
Progressives sought to democratise government and reduce the influence of corrupt political machines.
Key measures included:
Direct primaries: allowed party members, rather than elites, to select candidates.
Initiatives and referendums: gave citizens legislative powers.
Recall elections: allowed voters to remove corrupt officials before the end of their term.
Secret ballots: ensured voting confidentiality, curbing coercion.
At the national level, the 17th Amendment (1913) mandated the direct election of US Senators, curtailing legislative corruption.
Social Reforms
Progressive reformers also worked to improve urban life, particularly for the working classes and immigrants.
Settlement houses, such as Jane Addams’s Hull House, provided education, childcare, and health services.
Campaigns for temperance culminated in the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) in 1919.
Women’s suffrage movements grew in strength, leading to the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the vote.
These reforms reflected the Progressives' belief in moral improvement, education, and civic responsibility.
From 1890 to 1920, American politics underwent a transformation driven by both rural Populists and urban Progressives. While differing in origin and emphasis, both sought to make government more responsive, economy more equitable, and society more just. Their combined efforts laid the groundwork for future 20th-century reforms.
FAQ
Although the Populist Party championed economic reform that theoretically aligned with the interests of urban labourers—such as currency inflation, anti-monopoly policies, and income tax—there were key cultural and strategic divisions that limited their appeal. Firstly, the Populist movement was rooted in agrarian identity, with rhetoric often emphasising rural values and traditions. Urban workers, many of whom were immigrants, felt alienated by this rural-centric language and the Populists’ relative indifference to urban-specific issues like tenement housing, factory safety, or industrial wages. Furthermore, some Populist leaders expressed nativist or racist sentiments, which deterred ethnically diverse city workers. Labour unions also viewed Populists with suspicion, concerned that currency inflation via free silver would devalue wages. Additionally, the Democratic Party—particularly through figures like William Jennings Bryan—co-opted much of the Populist platform, leaving urban workers more likely to remain within established political networks. Ultimately, strategic missteps and cultural disconnects hindered urban-rural alliances.
Women were central to the Progressive movement, often spearheading initiatives related to social justice, public health, and education. Middle-class women, excluded from formal politics, used reform as a means of public engagement. Many were active in the settlement house movement, notably Jane Addams’s Hull House, where they provided support to immigrants and the poor. These institutions became laboratories for social reform, promoting early childhood education, job training, and sanitation. Women also campaigned for child labour laws, school attendance, and health regulations. Organisations like the National Consumers League, led by Florence Kelley, pressured businesses and governments to improve working conditions. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) linked morality with politics, advocating for Prohibition as a solution to domestic abuse and poverty. Their activism highlighted how maternalist arguments—framing reform as an extension of women’s domestic roles—legitimised political involvement. By 1920, this activism helped secure the 19th Amendment, linking Progressivism with the expansion of democratic rights.
State governments often acted as incubators for reform, testing policies that were later adopted nationally. Some states, particularly in the Midwest and West, were led by reformist governors who pushed for wide-ranging changes. For instance, Wisconsin under Governor Robert La Follette became a model of the “Wisconsin Idea,” where university research informed policy-making. Wisconsin introduced direct primaries, tax reform, railroad regulation, and labour protections, showcasing how states could pioneer progress without federal intervention. Oregon and California implemented mechanisms like the initiative, referendum, and recall, which expanded democratic participation. These tools allowed citizens to bypass corrupt legislatures and influence laws directly. States also passed workmen’s compensation laws, minimum wage legislation, and factory safety regulations, often well before federal equivalents. Courts sometimes resisted these measures, but states continued to innovate. In many ways, state-level experimentation proved crucial, as it demonstrated that reform was viable, even when Congress was gridlocked or hostile to change.
The Panic of 1893 was a severe economic depression that deeply influenced the trajectory of reform politics. It led to mass unemployment, widespread business failures, and a crisis in banking and railroad industries. For many Americans, especially farmers and urban workers, the crash exposed the vulnerabilities of unregulated capitalism and the inadequacy of government response. President Cleveland’s commitment to the gold standard alienated debt-ridden farmers who wanted inflationary silver coinage. The depression intensified support for the Populist Party, which offered a more radical vision of economic restructuring. Simultaneously, the hardships fuelled support for labour agitation, including the Pullman Strike of 1894, which was violently suppressed. These events demonstrated the growing unrest and undermined faith in laissez-faire governance. Reformers increasingly argued that stronger government intervention was needed to stabilise the economy, regulate business, and protect citizens. In this way, the Panic acted as a catalyst, propelling both Populist and Progressive movements into greater national prominence.
African Americans were often marginalised within the Progressive movement, which largely prioritised the concerns of white, middle-class reformers. Many Progressives either ignored or accepted racial segregation, fearing that advocacy for black rights would alienate Southern support. Nonetheless, African Americans engaged in their own reform efforts. Leaders like Booker T. Washington advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance through institutions such as the Tuskegee Institute. In contrast, W.E.B. Du Bois called for full civil rights, co-founding the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. The NAACP focused on legal challenges to segregation and lynching, laying the groundwork for later civil rights struggles. African American women, like Ida B. Wells, also led campaigns against lynching and for suffrage. Despite exclusion from mainstream Progressivism, black reformers established independent institutions, newspapers, and advocacy groups. Their activism demonstrated that black Progressivism existed alongside, and often in critique of, white-led reforms.
Practice Questions
To what extent was Progressivism more effective than Populism in bringing about political reform in the USA between 1890 and 1920?
Progressivism was more effective than Populism in achieving lasting political reform. While the Populists raised important issues—such as currency reform and direct senatorial elections—their rural base and third-party status limited success. In contrast, Progressives achieved substantial reforms at both state and federal levels, including the 17th Amendment, trust-busting, and regulation of big business under Roosevelt and Wilson. Their urban, middle-class support base allowed them to influence mainstream politics more directly, integrating their reforms within both major parties. Ultimately, Progressivism institutionalised reform within the system, whereas Populism’s impact was more short-lived and indirect.
How significant were the roles of Presidents Roosevelt and Wilson in the development of reform in the USA between 1890 and 1920?
Roosevelt and Wilson were pivotal in embedding reform into federal politics. Roosevelt’s Square Deal redefined presidential activism, breaking trusts and improving consumer protections. He used federal power assertively, establishing reform as a government duty. Wilson expanded this with the Federal Reserve Act, Clayton Antitrust Act, and Federal Trade Commission, tackling monopolies and modernising economic oversight. Both used the presidency to enact reforms previously blocked by Congress. Their efforts institutionalised Progressivism and shaped the modern regulatory state. While state-level reform was important, Roosevelt and Wilson's national leadership made systemic change possible, marking their roles as highly significant in the reform movement.
