This period marked the transformation of the USA into a global power, while experiencing major political, social, and economic shifts at home.
US Expansionism and Emerging Global Influence
Spanish-American War (1898)
Sparked by American support for Cuban independence, sensationalist journalism, and the explosion of the USS Maine.
The conflict lasted only four months and ended with a decisive American victory.
Treaty of Paris (1898): The USA gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines from Spain; Cuba was granted nominal independence under US influence.
Marked the end of Spanish colonial rule in the Americas and the emergence of the USA as an imperial power.
Annexation of the Philippines
The USA annexed the Philippines, leading to the Philippine-American War (1899–1902) against Filipino independence fighters.
Justified by ideals of 'civilising' and spreading democracy, but widely criticised by anti-imperialists like Mark Twain and William Jennings Bryan.
Established the USA as a Pacific power, influencing its future involvement in East Asia.
Influence in Latin America
The Monroe Doctrine was revived and expanded through the Roosevelt Corollary (1904), asserting the right of US intervention in Latin American nations.
America acted as an international police power to stabilise economies and protect its interests.
Used dollar diplomacy under President Taft to exert financial influence.
Interventions occurred in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Nicaragua, often under the guise of restoring order but serving US commercial and strategic goals.
The Panama Canal
Construction and Strategic Importance
The canal was vital for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, facilitating global trade and naval power.
Originally a French project, the USA took over in 1904 after supporting Panama’s independence from Colombia.
Completed in 1914, the canal reduced travel time for military and commercial ships.
Gave the USA geopolitical leverage, allowing it to project power more efficiently and control a critical trade route.
Control and Management
The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) gave the USA rights to build and control the Panama Canal Zone.
The project was a technological and logistical achievement, involving innovations in engineering and sanitation (notably the fight against yellow fever).
Control of the canal strengthened the USA’s economic and military influence in the Western Hemisphere.
US Involvement in the First World War
Initial Neutrality (1914–1917)
President Woodrow Wilson declared neutrality at the outbreak of WWI, reflecting isolationist sentiment.
Despite neutrality, the USA traded heavily with the Allies, especially Britain and France.
Tensions grew with Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, including the sinking of the Lusitania (1915), which killed American citizens.
Reasons for Entry
Continued German U-boat attacks and the Zimmermann Telegram (1917) proposing a German-Mexican alliance pushed public opinion.
Wilson’s vision of the USA as a moral leader and protector of democracy influenced his decision to declare war in April 1917.
Wilson’s War Aims
Wilson framed the war as an effort to “make the world safe for democracy”.
His Fourteen Points outlined ideals for peace, including self-determination, free trade, and a League of Nations.
Although Wilson’s ideas influenced the Treaty of Versailles, the USA ultimately rejected the treaty and the League, reflecting domestic disillusionment.
Economic and Industrial Dominance by 1920
War Economy and Production Boom
The USA mobilised rapidly, with war industries producing vast quantities of arms, ships, and food.
Government bodies like the War Industries Board coordinated production and resources.
Led to full employment and economic growth, especially in steel, oil, chemicals, and automobiles.
Global Creditor Status
By 1920, the USA had become the world’s leading economic power.
Provided massive loans to Allied countries, particularly Britain and France.
Shifted from a debtor nation to a global creditor, increasing its influence over international finance.
The war reinforced the idea that government and industry could cooperate effectively, a key development for future economic planning.
Immigration, Urbanisation, and Social Tensions
Assimilation and Cultural Tensions
The USA experienced high levels of immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, with immigrants settling in industrial cities.
Immigrants often lived in crowded urban neighbourhoods, contributing to rapid urbanisation but also cultural tension.
Native-born Americans feared job competition, foreign ideologies, and the erosion of Anglo-American culture.
Nativism and Immigration Restrictions
Rise of nativism: a belief in protecting American identity from foreign influence.
Americanisation campaigns aimed to assimilate immigrants, particularly during WWI.
The Red Scare (1919–20) intensified hostility towards immigrants, especially those from socialist or anarchist backgrounds.
Growing pressure led to immigration restrictions in the 1920s, including quotas favouring Northern Europeans.
The Position of African-Americans
The Great Migration
During WWI, thousands of African-Americans moved from the rural South to the urban North in search of jobs and better living conditions.
Known as the Great Migration, this reshaped African-American communities and political influence, particularly in Chicago, Detroit, and New York.
Racism and Limited Progress
Despite new opportunities, African-Americans faced segregation, discrimination, and race riots (e.g. East St. Louis, 1917).
Wilson’s administration maintained a segregated federal workforce, disappointing many black Americans.
Few tangible gains in civil rights occurred, and lynching and violence remained widespread.
Organisations like the NAACP campaigned for legal equality, but progress was slow.
The Mood of 1920: Reaction and Isolation
Political Reaction and Conservatism
Post-war America experienced a conservative backlash against Wilsonian internationalism and progressive reform.
Warren Harding’s 1920 presidential victory on a platform of a “return to normalcy” reflected a desire for stability and limited government intervention.
Congress rejected the Treaty of Versailles and refused to join the League of Nations, signalling a return to isolationism.
The Red Scare
A wave of fear about communism, anarchism, and labour unrest swept the country after the Russian Revolution (1917).
The Red Scare (1919–20) saw mass arrests, deportations, and the suppression of radical groups under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer.
The Sacco and Vanzetti trial became a symbol of anti-immigrant sentiment and the erosion of civil liberties.
Isolationism and National Identity
The 1920s began with a focus on domestic issues, economic growth, and cultural unity.
Many Americans turned inward, rejecting the progressive idealism of the pre-war years in favour of traditional values and business prosperity.
This period laid the groundwork for the cultural conflicts and political divisions that would characterise the decade.
FAQ
The USA’s swift victory in the Spanish-American War underscored the strategic importance of naval power, profoundly reshaping American military doctrine. The success of the modernised US Navy in defeating Spanish forces, particularly at Manila Bay and Santiago, validated the ideas of naval theorist Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that global power depended on control of the seas. Following the war, the USA committed to a major naval expansion, resulting in the construction of the “Great White Fleet”—a modern, steel-hulled fleet intended to demonstrate American naval superiority. The USA established coaling stations and naval bases in newly acquired territories, such as Guam and the Philippines, securing critical maritime routes. Control of the Panama Canal further enabled rapid naval deployment between oceans, enhancing global reach. This strategic pivot ensured the USA could project military power effectively in both the Atlantic and Pacific, solidifying its status as a world power by the onset of World War I.
The USA took an increasingly interventionist role in Latin American financial systems between 1890 and 1920, driven by economic interests and strategic considerations. Under President Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy,” the US government encouraged American banks and businesses to invest heavily in Latin American nations, including Nicaragua, Honduras, and the Dominican Republic. When financial instability threatened US investments, the government frequently intervened—sometimes diplomatically, but often militarily. For instance, the USA assumed control of Dominican customs to manage its debt repayments and deployed troops to Nicaragua in 1912 to protect American business interests. These interventions often involved restructuring national debts and imposing financial supervision through American advisors. While this approach aimed to create economic stability favourable to US interests, it also fuelled resentment among local populations and fostered dependence on the USA. Ultimately, American financial dominance in the region served as a tool of informal empire, allowing control without outright colonisation and reinforcing its hemispheric influence.
The 1917 Selective Service Act, passed shortly after the USA entered World War I, marked a pivotal shift in American military policy and had significant social implications. Prior to this, the USA had relied primarily on volunteer forces, but the scale of mobilisation required for global warfare necessitated conscription. The Act mandated registration for all men aged 21 to 30 (later expanded to 18 to 45), ultimately resulting in nearly 3 million men being drafted. It laid the foundations for a more centralised and bureaucratised military system, overseen by local draft boards that evaluated exemption claims. Importantly, the Act helped standardise military recruitment and increased the role of the federal government in citizens’ lives. Although African-Americans and recent immigrants were included, they often faced discrimination within the armed forces. The draft also sparked debates about civil liberties, patriotism, and national duty, making it a key moment in the evolving relationship between the American state and its people.
As the USA transitioned into a global power from 1890 to 1920, its cultural identity began to evolve, balancing traditional values with a growing sense of modernity and internationalism. The period saw heightened national pride driven by military victories and industrial growth, reinforcing beliefs in American exceptionalism. The influx of immigrants brought cultural pluralism to cities, but this also prompted a reactionary emphasis on assimilation and a unified “American” identity. Wartime propaganda and government-sponsored programmes, like the Committee on Public Information, promoted patriotism, encouraged English language use, and emphasised democratic ideals. Simultaneously, the arts, literature, and emerging film industry began to reflect a more complex and diverse society grappling with its new global role. There was also a growing tension between urban modernists, who embraced international engagement and social reform, and rural traditionalists, who favoured isolationism and cultural homogeneity. This cultural shift laid the groundwork for future ideological clashes in the 1920s and beyond.
Wartime economic mobilisation during World War I had profound effects on American workers and labour relations. The rapid expansion of industry created unprecedented demand for labour, leading to higher wages, improved working conditions, and increased union membership—especially in war-related sectors like steel, shipbuilding, and munitions. The federal government took an active role in managing industrial relations through the establishment of the National War Labor Board (1918), which arbitrated disputes and encouraged collective bargaining to avoid strikes that might hinder war production. This temporarily empowered workers and unions, as employers were pressured to recognise labour rights to ensure stability. However, racial and gender tensions emerged as African-Americans and women entered industrial jobs, often facing discrimination and hostility from existing workers. After the war, many of these gains were rolled back, and a wave of strikes in 1919 was met with repression. Employers linked union activism with radicalism during the Red Scare, undermining labour’s post-war position and setting the stage for future conflicts.
Practice Questions
‘Between 1890 and 1920, the USA’s involvement in international affairs marked a decisive break from isolationism.’ Assess the validity of this view.
While the USA traditionally followed isolationist principles, the period 1890–1920 saw significant engagement abroad, marking a clear shift. The Spanish-American War and annexation of the Philippines revealed growing imperial ambitions. Intervention in Latin America and the construction of the Panama Canal reflected assertive foreign policy. Entry into the First World War, despite initial neutrality, further demonstrated global involvement. However, the 1920 rejection of the League of Nations indicates that isolationist sentiments persisted. Overall, while some isolationist tendencies remained, this period fundamentally reshaped the USA as an emerging world power with expanded international responsibilities and influence.
To what extent did domestic developments between 1890 and 1920 transform the USA?
Domestic developments profoundly transformed the USA. Industrial and economic expansion created a global creditor status by 1920, reflecting its ascent as a financial superpower. Urbanisation and mass immigration reshaped American society, leading to cultural tensions and the rise of nativism. The Great Migration altered African-American demographics and contributed to regional shifts. Wartime mobilisation revealed new capacities for state-industry cooperation. Nevertheless, progress for African-Americans remained limited, and post-war conservatism curtailed reform. Although traditional values reasserted themselves in 1920, the scale of economic, demographic, and societal changes marked a significant transformation of the nation’s character and capabilities.
