US foreign policy between 1865 and 1890 was characterised by isolationist ideals, territorial consolidation, and a reluctance to engage in European political affairs.
The Principles of Isolationism
Definition and Origins
Isolationism refers to a foreign policy strategy in which a country seeks to minimise its involvement in international political and military affairs.
In the United States, isolationism developed from the Founding Fathers' warnings against foreign entanglements, notably George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796).
The policy was rooted in the belief that the geographical position of the US—separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean—allowed it to remain politically detached while engaging in economic relationships.
Key Tenets of Isolationism
Avoidance of European alliances and military commitments.
Emphasis on domestic development and national unity following the Civil War.
Maintenance of a defensive military posture, with no ambition for global expansion during this period.
Focus on continental expansion (rather than overseas), aligned with the ideology of Manifest Destiny.
Impact on Policy
The federal government limited its foreign interventions and diplomatic activities.
Foreign policy initiatives were generally reactive rather than proactive, prioritising US security and territorial interests.
The Monroe Doctrine and Its Continued Relevance
Background of the Monroe Doctrine
Declared in 1823 by President James Monroe, the Monroe Doctrine asserted that:
The Western Hemisphere was off-limits to new European colonisation.
Any European interference would be seen as a threat to US security.
In return, the US would not interfere in European affairs.
Reaffirmation Post-Civil War
Following the Civil War, US leaders reiterated the Monroe Doctrine as a guiding principle of foreign policy.
The doctrine was used to oppose French intervention in Mexico (1860s), particularly the imposition of Emperor Maximilian I by Napoleon III.
After the Civil War, US diplomatic pressure and support for Mexican resistance contributed to the French withdrawal and Maximilian’s execution (1867).
Symbol of Continental Control
The Monroe Doctrine symbolised the US desire to dominate its hemisphere while avoiding conflicts beyond it.
Though not aggressively enforced during this period, it helped solidify the ideological foundation for future expansion in Latin America.
Territorial Consolidation and Domestic Focus
Purchase of Alaska (1867)
The US purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million, negotiated by Secretary of State William H. Seward.
Critics dubbed the deal “Seward’s Folly”, seeing it as a barren and remote acquisition.
However, Alaska later proved valuable for its natural resources, especially gold and oil.
The purchase symbolised a non-aggressive form of expansion, consistent with isolationist principles.
Border Disputes with Canada
The US engaged in minor disputes with Britain (which controlled Canada) over the US-Canada border:
San Juan Islands dispute (also known as the Pig War): resolved peacefully through arbitration.
The Treaty of Washington (1871) settled multiple issues:
Border disputes in the Pacific Northwest.
Fishing rights.
Reparations for British-built Confederate raiders during the Civil War (Alabama claims).
These resolutions underscored a preference for diplomacy over conflict.
Focus on Internal Development
The federal government focused heavily on:
Reconstruction of the South.
Westward expansion and dealing with Native American resistance.
Economic recovery and industrialisation.
These domestic concerns made foreign policy a secondary priority, reinforcing isolationism.
Avoiding European Entanglements
Political Considerations
Post-war recovery demanded political and economic stability, discouraging risky foreign entanglements.
Many politicians and voters viewed European affairs as inherently unstable and potentially dangerous.
The idea of “entangling alliances” was still unpopular across much of the political spectrum.
Limited Military Engagement
The US Navy and Army remained relatively small and underfunded during this period.
There was no appetite for colonial or overseas military ventures that would necessitate a larger, professional military.
Focus remained on securing internal borders, especially in relation to Native American resistance in the West.
Trade, Not Diplomacy
Though the US remained politically isolated, it did not sever economic ties:
US merchants were active in international trade, especially in Asia and Latin America.
Diplomatic posts were maintained, but policy favoured economic engagement over political or military commitments.
Treaties with China and Japan focused on trade, such as the Burlingame Treaty (1868).
Continental Expansion vs Limited Foreign Ambitions
Manifest Destiny and Expansion
The ideology of Manifest Destiny persisted after the Civil War:
Belief that the US was destined to expand westward across the North American continent.
Expansion was seen as a moral and political imperative, not foreign aggression.
Key examples include:
Assimilation of the West through statehood for western territories.
Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad (1869).
Indian Wars and subjugation of Native American nations.
Limited Overseas Aspirations
Despite continental ambition, there was little public or political will for overseas colonies during this era.
The focus was on:
Internal cohesion and unity, especially after a divisive war.
Exploiting and consolidating continental resources, including western lands.
The US navy lacked the reach to support imperial ambitions abroad.
Tensions and Foreshadowing
Although largely isolationist, some events foreshadowed future expansionism:
Commercial treaties with Pacific nations hinted at long-term strategic interest.
Naval thinkers, such as Alfred Thayer Mahan, began advocating for a stronger navy and overseas bases (though more influential in the 1890s).
Missionary and commercial ventures abroad, especially in China and Hawaii, subtly pushed the boundaries of isolationism.
Contradictions
The period demonstrated a tension between expansionist ideology and political restraint:
Expansion was acceptable when it supported national security or economic goals.
However, military or diplomatic involvement overseas was still widely rejected.
Foreign policy reflected a balancing act between engaging the world economically and avoiding the risks of entangling politics.
FAQ
The purchase of Alaska in 1867 was driven by a combination of geopolitical strategy and opportunism. Russia, fearing it could not defend the territory from British Canada in future conflicts, offered it to the United States. Secretary of State William H. Seward saw the acquisition as a strategic move to expand American territory, increase trade opportunities in the Pacific, and assert influence in the Arctic and Asia. At $7.2 million, the price was considered a bargain. However, the American public and many politicians viewed the territory as remote and barren, mockingly referring to the acquisition as “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s Icebox.” Critics believed it offered little economic or strategic value. Nevertheless, the purchase was consistent with isolationist ideals—avoiding conflict while expanding defensively. In time, Alaska proved to be resource-rich, containing vast supplies of timber, gold, and oil, ultimately validating the decision. The purchase subtly reflected a broader vision of future Pacific influence.
William H. Seward, Secretary of State under both Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, played a pivotal role in maintaining and subtly expanding the United States’ international influence while adhering to isolationist values. His most famous act was the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, but his foreign policy vision extended beyond this. Seward believed in the eventual expansion of American commerce and influence across the Pacific and the Caribbean, though he opposed military conquest. He advocated for the use of diplomacy, trade agreements, and territorial acquisition through peaceful means. He also supported building a transoceanic canal, pursued relations with Hawaii and the Dominican Republic, and encouraged American commercial interests in Asia. Despite the domestic focus of the era, Seward laid foundational groundwork for later expansionism by pursuing calculated moves that did not overtly challenge the isolationist consensus. His approach combined long-term strategic thinking with an immediate commitment to peace and hemispheric stability.
The Treaty of Washington, signed in 1871, marked a turning point in Anglo-American relations by resolving longstanding disputes with Britain peacefully and diplomatically. The treaty addressed the "Alabama Claims," in which the United States sought reparations for damage caused by British-built Confederate warships during the Civil War, particularly the CSS Alabama. Through arbitration—a relatively novel diplomatic tool at the time—Britain agreed to pay $15.5 million in damages, setting a precedent for international legal resolution. The treaty also settled border disputes in the Pacific Northwest, granted fishing rights, and clarified maritime regulations. This peaceful resolution strengthened diplomatic trust between the two nations, significantly reducing tensions that had lingered since the war. It reflected the United States’ broader foreign policy priorities: maintaining hemispheric security, avoiding European conflicts, and asserting moral and legal standards in international dealings. The treaty illustrated that the US could act decisively in foreign affairs while upholding its isolationist ethos.
Yes, several incidents tested US isolationism during this period, though they were generally resolved without significant deviation from the non-interventionist approach. One such example was the French occupation of Mexico, which began during the American Civil War. Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of Mexico, directly challenging the Monroe Doctrine. After the Civil War, the US applied diplomatic pressure and moved troops to the Mexican border, signalling potential military involvement. This assertiveness, combined with internal Mexican resistance, forced France to withdraw in 1867. Another minor crisis was the Virginius Affair in 1873, when Spanish authorities captured and executed American citizens aboard the ship Virginius, accusing them of aiding Cuban rebels. Though there was public outcry and the US prepared naval forces, the incident was resolved diplomatically. These episodes demonstrated that while the US was committed to isolationism, it would act forcefully when its sovereignty or regional influence was threatened, especially within the Western Hemisphere.
Despite the prevailing isolationist ideology, commercial interests increasingly drove American engagement with the wider world. The post-war economic boom and the growth of manufacturing created a surplus of goods that required foreign markets. As such, the government began negotiating treaties and fostering trade relationships, particularly with East Asia and Latin America. The Burlingame Treaty with China in 1868 exemplified this, promoting favourable trade conditions and encouraging Chinese immigration. Similarly, interest in Japan and Hawaii grew due to their strategic value for Pacific trade routes and coaling stations. American merchants and missionaries also pushed for greater access to foreign ports, especially in the Pacific. These actions signalled a soft challenge to strict isolationism; the US sought economic expansion without political or military entanglements. This period marked the early stages of commercial imperialism, in which the US pursued global influence through trade rather than conquest, laying the foundation for more assertive policies in the 1890s.
Practice Questions
To what extent did the principles of isolationism shape US foreign policy between 1865 and 1890?
The principles of isolationism significantly shaped US foreign policy in this period, as the nation prioritised domestic reconstruction and westward expansion over foreign entanglements. Rooted in Washington’s Farewell Address and reaffirmed by the Monroe Doctrine, isolationism discouraged involvement in European affairs. Diplomatic efforts, such as the peaceful resolution of disputes with Canada, and the purchase of Alaska, reflected a defensive posture. Although trade and influence abroad expanded, especially in the Pacific, there was no serious pursuit of empire. Thus, isolationist principles were dominant, though increasingly tested by growing economic interests and emerging global ambitions.
Explain the significance of the Monroe Doctrine in US foreign policy between 1865 and 1890.
The Monroe Doctrine remained a cornerstone of US foreign policy between 1865 and 1890, reinforcing the country’s isolationist stance. It was instrumental in justifying opposition to European intervention in the Americas, particularly during the French occupation of Mexico. The doctrine was invoked to assert US influence in the Western Hemisphere while avoiding formal alliances. Though not aggressively enforced, it symbolised a growing sense of continental authority. Its enduring relevance lay in offering a framework that balanced national security with non-intervention, allowing the US to consolidate its position domestically while discouraging external interference in its sphere of influence.
