Mary I's reign (1553–1558) marked a determined effort to restore Roman Catholicism, reversing Edwardian reforms and navigating complex domestic and foreign challenges.
Mary I’s Religious Aims and Methods
Restoring Catholicism and Papal Authority
Mary I ascended the throne determined to reverse the Protestant reforms introduced by her father Henry VIII and intensified under her half-brother Edward VI. Her reign was primarily shaped by a religious mission: the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism and the return of England to papal obedience.
Religious motivation: Mary was deeply influenced by her Catholic upbringing and her mother, Catherine of Aragon. She saw her role as a divine mission to save the souls of her subjects by restoring the ‘true faith’. Her views were shaped by her own persecution under Edward’s Protestant regime, which strengthened her resolve.
Immediate actions: Mary acted swiftly upon taking the throne. Although she initially promised religious tolerance, within months she repealed Edwardian religious laws. Protestant bishops, including Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, were imprisoned or removed. She reinstated Catholic bishops and restored Latin services, Mass, and the traditional liturgical calendar.
Legislative reversal:
The First Statute of Repeal (1553) repealed all religious legislation from Edward’s reign.
In 1555, the Second Statute of Repeal reversed all legislation passed since 1529, effectively undoing the Henrician Reformation and restoring papal authority.
The Heresy Laws were revived, allowing for the execution of Protestants who refused to recant.
The Marian Persecutions: The most notorious element of Mary’s religious restoration was the burning of heretics.
Approximately 280 Protestants were executed by burning between 1555 and 1558, including leading reformers like Cranmer (former Archbishop of Canterbury), Ridley, and Latimer.
These executions were often public spectacles and were intended to serve as deterrents. However, they produced the opposite effect—generating martyrdom narratives that hardened Protestant resolve.
John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, published during Elizabeth’s reign, portrayed Mary as “Bloody Mary” and permanently tarnished her legacy.
Compromise on monastic land: Despite restoring papal supremacy, Mary made no effort to return confiscated monastic lands to the Church. These lands had been sold or redistributed under Henry VIII and Edward VI, and their return would have alienated powerful nobles and gentry. This pragmatic decision preserved political stability but created tension with Rome.
Role of the Papacy
Papal reconciliation: In 1554, Cardinal Reginald Pole returned to England as the papal legate and was later made Archbishop of Canterbury. He oversaw the formal reconciliation between England and Rome. Pope Julius III declared absolution for the English nation, officially bringing it back into the Catholic fold.
The process was complicated by the refusal of some members of Parliament to fully reinstate papal supremacy, primarily due to their concerns over property rights, not theological objections.
Use of Ministers and the Role of Philip of Spain
Stephen Gardiner
Background: Gardiner had been Henry VIII’s conservative bishop of Winchester. Under Edward VI, he was imprisoned for opposing Protestantism.
Role under Mary: Upon her accession, Gardiner became Lord Chancellor and was one of her most trusted advisors. He:
Helped oversee the legislative rollback of Protestant reforms.
Opposed Mary’s proposed marriage to Philip of Spain, fearing it would make England subservient to Habsburg interests.
Worked to maintain national sovereignty and support English clergy.
He died in 1555, removing a moderating influence on Mary’s religious zeal.
Cardinal Reginald Pole
Religious aims: Pole was a key figure in re-Catholicising England. He attempted to reform the Church internally, emphasising pastoral care, better education of priests, and restoring clerical discipline.
Limitations:
His influence waned after the election of Pope Paul IV, who distrusted him and removed his legatine authority in 1557.
Pole's efforts to restore spiritual life in England were hindered by war, economic hardship, and religious persecution.
Philip of Spain
Mary married Philip, Prince of Spain (later Philip II), in 1554 to secure a powerful Catholic alliance.
Terms of the marriage:
Set out in a formal marriage treaty, it stated Philip would hold the title of King but exercise no real power.
England would not be dragged into Habsburg wars unless Parliament approved.
Philip would bring no foreigners into office and any heir from the union would inherit England, not be absorbed into the Habsburg Empire.
Public reaction:
The marriage was widely unpopular. It stirred fears of Spanish domination and of England becoming a satellite of the Catholic Habsburg Empire.
The xenophobic mood contributed to Wyatt’s Rebellion.
Impact:
Philip spent little time in England, leaving after the wedding and only returning briefly.
His influence on domestic politics was minimal, though he did pressure Mary to support Spain in a war against France in 1557.
The Spanish Marriage and its Consequences
Political Significance
The marriage was a significant diplomatic move, tying England to the powerful Habsburg dynasty.
It was hoped that a Catholic heir from this union would secure England’s return to permanent Catholicism.
Failure to produce an heir
Mary suffered multiple phantom pregnancies. Her failure to produce an heir left England’s future uncertain and raised Elizabeth’s prospects.
This undermined Mary’s authority and Catholic restoration.
Loss of Calais
In 1557, England was drawn into the Habsburg-Valois war as a result of the alliance with Spain.
In January 1558, Calais, England’s last possession in France, fell to French forces.
Calais had been under English control since 1347 and held great symbolic and strategic importance.
The loss was a national humiliation and weakened Mary’s reputation.
Mary is famously quoted as saying: “When I am dead and opened, you shall find ‘Calais’ lying in my heart.”
Domestic Challenges and Rebellions
Wyatt’s Rebellion (1554)
Causes:
Opposition to the Spanish marriage.
Protestant discontent with the Catholic revival.
Economic grievances, including poor harvests and local unemployment in Kent.
Leaders: Sir Thomas Wyatt (Kent), Sir Peter Carew (Devon), Sir James Croft (Herefordshire), and Henry Grey (Duke of Suffolk).
Aims:
Prevent Mary’s marriage to Philip.
Remove Catholic influence and possibly place Elizabeth or Lady Jane Grey on the throne.
Events:
Wyatt raised 4,000 men and marched on London.
Mary gave a defiant speech at Guildhall, rallying support.
The rebellion collapsed after reaching the city walls.
Consequences:
Around 100 rebels were executed.
Lady Jane Grey and her husband were executed.
Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower but ultimately released for lack of evidence.
The rebellion exposed widespread anxiety and undermined Mary’s authority.
Economic Difficulties
Mary inherited a damaged economy:
Inflation caused by Henry’s coinage debasement continued.
Debasement led to a decline in purchasing power and economic instability.
Harvest failures:
Poor harvests in 1555 and 1556 led to food shortages and rising grain prices.
Epidemics, including influenza, caused high mortality, especially among the urban poor.
These crises created further resentment, especially as religious persecution increased.
Reforms:
Mary commissioned a plan to reform the currency, though it was implemented under Elizabeth.
She attempted to improve revenue collection and restore naval strength, laying groundwork for future financial reforms.
Intellectual Responses to Marian Catholicism
Protestant Resistance and Martyrdom
Public executions of Protestant leaders inspired a culture of resistance.
John Foxe, in exile during Mary’s reign, compiled Acts and Monuments (later known as Foxe’s Book of Martyrs), published in 1563. It became a cornerstone of English Protestant identity.
The book depicted martyrs as heroic, painting Mary as a tyrant. Its widespread use in Elizabethan churches ensured Mary’s lasting negative reputation.
The Marian Exiles
Around 800 Protestants fled to Europe (Geneva, Zurich, Frankfurt) during Mary’s reign.
These exiles:
Maintained Protestant theological developments.
Adopted Calvinist ideas, becoming more radicalised.
Upon return under Elizabeth, they formed the nucleus of the Puritan movement, challenging the moderate religious settlement.
Continuation of Humanist and Religious Debate
While Mary’s reign suppressed much of the public intellectual scene, humanist scholars like Pole continued to support educational reform.
Universities retained a degree of continuity in scholarship, although censorship and religious oversight curtailed Protestant work.
Debate persisted within exiled and underground circles, sustaining theological tension that would resurface in Elizabeth’s reign.
FAQ
Mary’s accession in 1553 was surprisingly smooth, especially given the attempt by Northumberland to install Lady Jane Grey. Despite her Catholic faith, many nobles and members of the political elite supported Mary’s claim because of her undeniable legitimacy as Henry VIII’s daughter. The Tudor dynasty’s stability depended on clear succession, and Mary’s legitimacy had been reaffirmed in Henry’s Third Succession Act (1543). Many elites feared the consequences of supporting a usurper like Jane, particularly as public support rapidly swung in Mary’s favour. Even staunch Protestants recognised the need for dynastic continuity to avoid civil unrest. Additionally, Mary’s promises early in her reign to avoid religious persecution reassured moderate Protestants. Some nobles also saw the opportunity to gain influence at court by pledging loyalty early. Thus, political pragmatism, fear of instability, and the strength of dynastic legitimacy outweighed religious considerations for many in the ruling classes.
Though Mary I’s reign is primarily associated with religious and domestic turmoil, her government made notable efforts to revitalise England’s navy and military administration. Recognising the importance of naval strength in light of England’s vulnerable geopolitical position, Mary’s government invested in expanding and reorganising the navy. Under the leadership of Lord High Admiral John Clere and financial management by Benjamin Gonson, the Crown initiated a programme of rebuilding ships, improving naval dockyards such as those at Deptford and Woolwich, and ensuring better record-keeping and provisioning. The number of royal ships increased, and steps were taken to standardise naval wages and supplies, laying a foundation for Elizabeth’s later maritime successes. Although her naval reforms did not have immediate wartime application beyond the unsuccessful support for Spain in France, they marked a turning point in establishing a permanent naval administration, transitioning away from the ad hoc methods of previous monarchs.
Women were both supporters and critics of Mary I’s religious and political programme, and their roles varied across class and region. Among the elite, women like Frances Brandon (Lady Jane Grey’s mother) were entangled in political machinations opposing Mary’s succession. However, many noblewomen aligned themselves with Mary’s court for security and influence. Catholic laywomen played a vital role in sustaining traditional practices during Edward VI’s reign and were enthusiastic participants in the return to Catholic rituals, organising public processions and funding church restoration. Conversely, Protestant women, particularly in urban centres like London, were active in underground networks distributing banned literature and sheltering dissenters. Several women, such as Anne Askew (executed earlier under Henry VIII), became posthumous symbols of Protestant martyrdom during Mary’s reign. The execution of women like Joan Waste during the Marian persecutions shocked many contemporaries and became rallying points for opposition, showing that gender did not shield religious dissenters from state repression.
Mary I’s religious reforms had a mixed impact on education and literacy. Her restoration of Catholicism reversed the Protestant emphasis on Bible reading in English, which had encouraged widespread literacy under Edward VI. The return to Latin services limited access to scripture for ordinary people, reducing lay engagement with religious texts. However, the Marian Church did attempt to improve clerical education and discipline, with Cardinal Pole promoting seminary-style training for priests and encouraging scholarly learning within a Catholic framework. Some cathedral schools received renewed support, and universities like Oxford and Cambridge continued to function, albeit under stricter religious oversight. Protestant educational reformers, many of whom had been active in producing accessible catechisms and primers, went into exile, taking their pedagogical models with them. Therefore, while Mary’s regime improved clerical standards and preserved traditional humanist scholarship, it arguably slowed the growth of mass literacy and reversed the educational outreach of the Edwardian Church.
Under Mary I, traditional Catholic festivals and popular religious culture experienced a revival after years of Protestant suppression. Public celebrations such as Corpus Christi processions, saints’ days, and Marian feasts were reinstated. Parish churches restored altars, images, and crucifixes, and lay confraternities resumed their charitable and religious functions. This return to vibrant visual and communal worship was embraced in many areas, particularly rural communities, where Catholic customs had deep roots. However, in more Protestant-leaning urban centres, particularly London, these changes met with resistance or indifference. Some processions were sparsely attended or even disrupted, indicating that religious culture was becoming increasingly polarised. Music and drama also reflected the shift: Catholic plays and traditional religious songs returned, though the enforcement of orthodoxy meant that controversial or Protestant-aligned cultural expressions were censored. Thus, while Mary’s reign saw a cultural re-Catholicisation of religious life, its success varied by region and often depended on the existing religious sympathies of the local population.
Practice Questions
To what extent was Mary I’s restoration of Catholicism successful between 1553 and 1558?
Mary I achieved significant short-term success in restoring Catholicism, including the revival of papal supremacy, heresy laws, and traditional rituals. The Marian persecutions demonstrated her commitment, and the official reconciliation with Rome symbolised a re-Catholicisation of England. However, her failure to produce an heir, public backlash to burnings, and the persistence of Protestant ideas—particularly among Marian exiles—undermined lasting change. Many reforms were reversed under Elizabeth I, indicating limited long-term impact. Thus, while religious restoration was legislatively and ceremonially effective, it lacked deep-rooted societal acceptance, rendering Mary’s Catholic revival largely unsuccessful beyond her lifetime.
How significant was the role of Philip of Spain in shaping Mary I’s domestic and foreign policy?
Philip of Spain played a modest yet influential role in Mary I’s reign. His marriage to Mary catalysed Wyatt’s Rebellion and intensified public fears of foreign domination, affecting domestic stability. Though politically sidelined in England, Philip’s influence steered Mary into the Habsburg-Valois war, leading to the loss of Calais—England’s last French possession and a severe blow to national pride. However, Philip had little direct involvement in internal governance or religious policy. Overall, his impact was more symbolic and indirect, shaping perceptions and decisions rather than actively driving policy, but his presence left lasting political and diplomatic consequences.
