The final years of Elizabeth I’s reign were marked by both consolidation and strain, as England faced mounting political, economic, religious, and social challenges.
Political State: Stability vs Factionalism and Succession Anxieties
Stability of Monarchical Authority
Elizabeth maintained a remarkable degree of personal authority into the final years of her reign. Her image as the Virgin Queen, her skilful use of patronage, and her ability to balance competing factions preserved central control despite the challenges posed by her advancing age and waning charisma.
Elizabeth continued to preside over government with regular meetings of the Privy Council, although its membership changed significantly in the 1590s.
Her leadership ensured that no single faction could dominate, keeping rivalries (notably between Cecil and Essex) from escalating to destabilising levels—until Essex’s rebellion in 1601.
Factionalism and the Rise of Court Rivalries
While factionalism had been largely restrained earlier in her reign, it intensified in the final decade:
Robert Cecil rose to dominate government after his father Lord Burghley’s death in 1598.
The Earl of Essex, a popular military figure and Elizabeth’s former favourite, became increasingly frustrated with his declining influence.
The resulting rivalry culminated in Essex’s Rebellion (1601)—a failed uprising driven more by personal ambition than genuine popular support, but it revealed discontent among sections of the nobility and exposed political tensions at court.
The Succession Crisis
The greatest long-term threat to political stability was the question of succession:
Elizabeth never named a successor, creating uncertainty that loomed over court politics.
Potential claimants included James VI of Scotland, Arabella Stuart, and others, but open discussion was considered treasonous.
Robert Cecil quietly negotiated with James VI behind the scenes to ensure a smooth transition, leading to the relatively peaceful succession of James I in 1603.
Economic Condition: War Debt, Inflation, Trade Patterns, and Poverty Legislation
War Debt and Fiscal Strains
England was burdened by prolonged conflict, particularly with Spain and in Ireland:
By 1603, war with Spain had stretched for nearly two decades, placing severe pressure on royal finances.
The cost of military campaigns in Ireland (e.g. Tyrone’s Rebellion) further strained the Exchequer.
Elizabeth resorted to selling off crown lands and granting monopolies to raise funds—short-term solutions that weakened royal income in the long run.
Inflation and Coinage Issues
Economic pressures continued to mount:
Inflation persisted due to earlier debasement of the coinage and population growth, driving up food prices.
The real value of wages declined, especially during the poor harvests of the 1590s, creating widespread hardship.
Trade Expansion and Challenges
Despite internal difficulties, England’s external trade was diversifying:
The East India Company was founded in 1600, signifying a long-term shift toward global commercial expansion.
Merchant adventurers explored new routes, and privateering brought in wealth during wartime.
However, trade remained susceptible to war disruption, and piracy could impact merchants' profits.
Poverty Legislation and Poor Relief
The state increasingly legislated for the relief of the poor, recognising both moral duty and the need to prevent unrest:
The Poor Law of 1598 and the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 created a more structured system of poor relief.
Parishes became responsible for providing for the deserving poor, while ‘sturdy beggars’ were punished for idleness.
These laws reflected growing concerns about vagrancy, unemployment, and urban poverty.
Religious Situation: Stability Achieved, Residual Tensions
Protestant Uniformity and Control
By the 1590s, the Elizabethan Religious Settlement had created a broadly Protestant national church that most people accepted, at least outwardly:
Church attendance was mandated, and recusancy fines (for those refusing to attend Anglican services) were enforced.
There were few overt signs of mass resistance to the Church of England.
Residual Catholic Tensions
Although Catholicism declined, tensions remained:
Catholic priests continued to operate in secret, supported by recusant families.
After the failure of the Spanish Armada (1588) and subsequent plots, Catholicism was increasingly associated with foreign threat and treason.
Executions of Catholic priests, such as Robert Southwell, showed the government’s determination to suppress Catholic activism.
Decline of Puritan Pressure
Puritan influence was also waning by the end of the reign:
Attempts to reform church governance (e.g. the Millenary Petition) were rebuffed.
Leaders of radical Puritan groups, such as the Separatists, were imprisoned or executed.
Conformity was enforced more strictly, indicating Elizabeth’s desire to avoid religious upheaval.
Social Conditions: Class Structure, Urban Growth, Rural Challenges
Changing Class Structure
Social mobility was limited, but there were signs of change:
The growth of a wealthy merchant class in towns contributed to a more diverse social hierarchy.
The traditional landed gentry grew in influence and wealth, often serving as Justices of the Peace or in Parliament.
Meanwhile, urban poor and landless labourers became more numerous.
Urbanisation and Its Effects
Towns and cities grew, particularly London, which became a dominant centre of commerce, governance, and culture:
Migration from rural areas increased as people sought work in towns.
Urban centres often struggled with overcrowding, poor sanitation, and unemployment.
Rural Dislocation and Hardship
Rural areas faced significant disruption:
Enclosure of common land continued, displacing smallholders and increasing rural poverty.
Poor harvests in the 1590s caused famine conditions, leading to malnutrition and increased death rates in some regions.
Some areas experienced local unrest, although large-scale rebellion was rare after 1601.
Rebellion and Social Control
The government remained concerned about potential unrest:
The Essex Rebellion in 1601 was more politically than socially driven, but it raised fears of civil instability.
Harsh punishments and surveillance by local officials discouraged open dissent.
The Poor Law system was intended not only to provide relief but also to maintain social order.
England by 1603: A General Assessment
By Elizabeth’s death in March 1603, England stood at a crossroads:
Politically, the monarchy remained intact and respected, but uncertainty over succession had created anxiety and factional competition.
Economically, the country faced significant debt and hardship among the poor, though long-term trade prospects were promising.
Religiously, the Church of England had become entrenched, though both Catholics and Puritans remained dissatisfied minorities.
Socially, England was experiencing both growth and strain: rising towns and emergent classes existed alongside widespread poverty and rural dislocation.
Despite these issues, Elizabeth had managed to preserve national unity, navigate war and internal dissent, and oversee the emergence of England as a more assertive European power. The groundwork was laid for the transformations of the Stuart era, though serious challenges remained unresolved.
FAQ
The late 1590s saw the deaths of several of Elizabeth I’s long-standing and experienced councillors, notably Lord Burghley (William Cecil) in 1598 and Francis Walsingham in 1590. Their passing removed stabilising influences and opened space for younger, less experienced figures like Robert Cecil and the Earl of Essex to rise. While Robert Cecil was highly competent and adept in managing affairs, the absence of older, trusted statesmen made it harder for Elizabeth to balance competing court factions. This contributed to increasing tensions at court and made the Queen’s task of maintaining unity and control more difficult. Elizabeth, now elderly and less politically energetic, became more withdrawn and relied heavily on a smaller circle of advisors. The gap left by these ministers also contributed to the personalisation of political rivalries, as seen in Essex’s increasingly erratic behaviour. While governance continued, it became more precarious and relied heavily on Cecil’s political skill and Elizabeth’s residual authority.
By 1603, London had become the political, economic, and cultural heart of England. Its rapid urban growth during Elizabeth’s reign created a population centre of around 200,000 people, far larger than any other English town. The city housed the Royal Court, Parliament, and leading mercantile guilds, making it the centre of national decision-making and economic innovation. London’s ports facilitated expanding overseas trade, including links to the Netherlands, Spain, and later ventures with the East India Company. Its growing publishing industry helped disseminate royal proclamations, religious materials, and cultural works, reinforcing national identity. However, its expansion also created major challenges: overcrowding, sanitation issues, rising crime, and economic disparity. Many rural migrants arrived seeking work, contributing to vagrancy and social tensions. Despite these issues, London played a central role in consolidating Elizabeth’s power and in projecting England as an emerging global player. It was both a symbol of national strength and a microcosm of its growing pains.
The 1590s were marked by successive poor harvests, particularly in 1594–1597, which led to famine conditions, especially in the north. Grain shortages drove up food prices, causing real hardship for the poor. The government responded with a mixture of local and national measures. Parishes were encouraged to buy grain in advance to distribute to the poor, and local justices were expected to control prices and punish hoarders. The Poor Laws of 1598 and 1601 were partly responses to this crisis, providing a legal framework for poor relief funded by local taxes (the poor rate). Elizabeth’s government was also careful to monitor for potential unrest. Informants reported suspicious gatherings or seditious speech, and vagrants were harshly punished to deter disorder. Although these measures did not eliminate hardship, they helped contain unrest. Importantly, despite widespread suffering, there were no major rebellions, indicating some success in state control and the resilience of Elizabethan governance.
The Nine Years’ War in Ireland (1594–1603) had a substantial impact on England’s stability and finances. Led by Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone, the rebellion challenged English control of Ulster and required significant military intervention. The conflict escalated in the late 1590s, culminating in the Battle of Kinsale (1601), where English forces finally broke Irish resistance. The war was incredibly costly, both in terms of lives and money—it drained royal finances already strained by war with Spain and led to heavy taxation in England. Troop levies caused disruption in many English counties, and reports of mutinies and desertions reflected the strain on morale. The campaign also fed domestic criticism of Elizabeth’s ministers and intensified court rivalries over military appointments and honours. Although England eventually succeeded in asserting control, it came at a high cost, contributing to economic instability and political fatigue by the time of Elizabeth’s death. Ireland remained volatile, and future tensions with Gaelic lords and local populations were left unresolved.
Monopolies granted by the Crown—exclusive rights to produce or sell particular goods—were a key source of revenue for Elizabeth, especially in her later years when other funds were depleted by war. However, their abuse became a major cause of public and parliamentary resentment. Monopolies often led to higher prices, market restrictions, and widespread consumer anger, as goods like salt, starch, and tin were controlled by private individuals granted royal favour. By the 1590s, criticism had grown fierce, and Parliamentary debates in 1601 saw members vocally oppose these grants. The resulting pressure forced Elizabeth to deliver the famous Golden Speech in November 1601, in which she acknowledged their concerns and promised reforms. While the speech helped defuse the immediate crisis and was politically astute, it revealed growing tension between the monarchy and political nation over economic policy and Crown prerogative. Monopolies became emblematic of declining trust in government and helped fuel discontent in an already strained economy.
Practice Questions
‘Factional rivalries posed the greatest threat to Elizabeth I’s government in the years 1598–1603.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Factional rivalries, particularly between Robert Cecil and the Earl of Essex, were significant, culminating in the Essex Rebellion of 1601. However, while they challenged court cohesion, Elizabeth retained control through her authority and use of patronage. The rebellion failed to gain support, showing limited popular impact. Greater threats came from unresolved succession issues and economic hardship. These created national uncertainty and discontent beyond the court. While factionalism was disruptive, it was managed effectively by the Queen and did not destabilise the realm as profoundly as broader structural pressures. Thus, the statement is only partially valid.
To what extent was England economically unstable by the end of Elizabeth I’s reign?
By 1603, England’s economy faced significant instability: war debt from prolonged conflicts, inflation caused by population growth, and widespread poverty exacerbated by poor harvests and enclosure. The government’s finances were strained, leading to the unpopular use of monopolies. However, efforts such as the 1601 Poor Law and expanding overseas trade, including the establishment of the East India Company, laid the groundwork for future economic resilience. Despite severe short-term pressures, economic instability was neither total nor irreversible. England’s economy was under strain but not collapsing, making the instability considerable yet not absolute.
