Elizabeth I’s Character and Early Priorities
Personality and Public Image
Elizabeth I ascended the throne in 1558, aged 25, inheriting a fractured and unstable kingdom.
She was highly educated, fluent in Latin, Greek, French, and Italian, and heavily influenced by humanist and Protestant thinking.
Her reign began with a carefully curated public image: moderate, pragmatic, and politically astute.
Elizabeth was known for her rhetorical skill, especially in using gender to her advantage, portraying herself as the "Virgin Queen" who was married to her realm.
She projected an image of firm but merciful authority, vital for calming religious and political tensions.
Political Priorities
Consolidate her authority as a new monarch amidst factional divisions and recent political upheaval.
Establish a functional and loyal court, ensuring control over her ministers and advisers.
Reassert the monarch’s supremacy over church and state without provoking domestic unrest or foreign aggression.
Religious Priorities
Stabilise the realm through a moderate Protestant settlement that would pacify both reformers and conservative Catholics.
Rebuild the Church of England after Mary I’s reversion to Catholicism, without triggering rebellion or excommunication.
Avoid religious extremism by promoting uniformity without dogmatic enforcement.
The Elizabethan Religious Settlement
The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559)
Act of Supremacy:
Re-established the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
Required clergy and royal officials to swear an oath of loyalty to the Queen.
Repealed Marian heresy laws and revoked papal authority.
“Supreme Governor” (not “Supreme Head”) was chosen to appease conservative critics who objected to a female head of the Church.
Act of Uniformity:
Restored the 1552 Book of Common Prayer, with some Catholic concessions, such as ambiguity in the wording of the Eucharist.
Attendance at Anglican church services was made compulsory, with a fine of 12d for non-attendance (recusancy).
Churches were required to adopt Protestant rituals and practices, but vestments and ornaments were permitted, creating a compromise.
Role of the Church of England
The Church served as a tool of royal authority and national unity, not purely a religious body.
Elizabeth ensured doctrinal ambiguity, allowing a wide range of beliefs under one ecclesiastical framework.
The Court of High Commission was established to enforce uniformity and discipline the clergy.
Bishops were mostly moderate Protestants, loyal to Elizabeth’s vision of order and national unity.
Early Foreign Policy: Balancing France and Spain
Key Challenges
Elizabeth’s Protestantism alarmed Catholic powers, especially France and Spain, which supported her Catholic cousin, Mary Queen of Scots.
France posed an immediate threat due to the Auld Alliance with Scotland and its support for Mary as the rightful English queen.
Spain, though Catholic, was less hostile initially, as Philip II hoped Elizabeth would be a moderate Protestant or even a marriage prospect.
France and the Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis (1559)
Elizabeth inherited the loss of Calais from Mary I’s reign, a bitter diplomatic blow.
The Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis (1559) ended hostilities between France and Spain and confirmed English loss of Calais.
Though humiliating, Elizabeth accepted the treaty to avoid war, allowing her to focus on domestic consolidation.
The Scottish Problem
In 1559–60, French troops supported Mary of Guise, Queen Regent of Scotland.
The Treaty of Edinburgh (1560), supported by Cecil and signed by Scottish Protestants and England, forced the withdrawal of French troops.
This significantly reduced the threat to Elizabeth from the Franco-Scottish alliance.
Relations with Spain
Elizabeth cautiously maintained cordial relations with Spain, despite religious differences.
She avoided open alliances with Protestant rebels in the Netherlands to avoid provoking Philip II.
Overall, her foreign policy was characterised by prudence, minimal entanglements, and avoidance of war.
Economic and Social Change
Inflation and Currency Reform
Inflation had been a chronic issue since the 1540s, caused by:
Population growth.
Enclosure of farmland.
Debasement of coinage under Henry VIII and Edward VI.
Elizabeth’s government initiated currency reform in 1560–61, overseen by Sir Thomas Gresham, to restore the silver content of coins.
Though it stabilised the economy, it could not resolve wider structural problems like rising food prices and wage stagnation.
Poor Relief
The Elizabethan government continued and extended Tudor poor laws, targeting vagrancy and begging.
Key measures included:
The Act for the Relief of the Poor (1563), which made contributions to local poor relief compulsory.
Parish-based responsibility for care of the poor.
Distinction between ‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ poor, which laid foundations for later Elizabethan Poor Laws.
These measures were driven not by humanitarian concerns, but by fears of social disorder.
Social Unrest
Social tensions were fuelled by:
Harvest failures (e.g. poor harvests in early 1560s).
Rapid urban population growth, especially in London.
Enclosures displacing rural workers.
Though there were no major uprisings during these years, economic dislocation created a tense and volatile social atmosphere.
Local government and Justices of the Peace played a vital role in managing unrest and enforcing order.
Early Impact of the Religious Settlement and Political Control
Implementation and Resistance
Most of the population complied with the Elizabethan Settlement, though Catholic recusancy persisted quietly.
The clergy was purged of Catholic bishops; many resigned or were replaced.
Elizabeth avoided mass persecution, aiming instead for outward conformity rather than internal belief.
Puritans, who felt the Settlement did not go far enough, began to grow in influence but were not yet politically powerful.
Control over Parliament
Parliament was summoned only occasionally, used primarily to grant taxation and legitimise policy.
Elizabeth maintained firm control over Parliament’s agenda, resisting any attempts to influence religious or succession matters.
She used tools such as:
Royal veto of bills.
Use of privy councillors to steer debates.
Messages and instructions to prevent overreach.
Court Politics
Elizabeth’s court was highly centralised, with power concentrated among trusted advisers like William Cecil (Principal Secretary).
The Queen personally controlled patronage and factional balance, ensuring no single court faction gained dominance.
Her manipulative and performative style allowed her to maintain authority over ambitious courtiers while appearing approachable.
Political unity at court during these years was relatively strong, as most shared the goal of consolidating the regime.
By 1563, Elizabeth I had established a moderate but firm religious settlement, navigated foreign threats through diplomacy, initiated key economic reforms, and maintained control over a politically complex court. These achievements laid the foundation for stability in the years to come.
FAQ
Elizabeth I’s management of religious opposition from the nobility and clergy between 1558 and 1563 was measured and strategic. She faced resistance particularly from conservative Catholic peers and bishops who had supported Mary I’s Catholic revival. Instead of immediately persecuting opponents, Elizabeth relied on legal mechanisms and appointments to gradually reshape the religious leadership. Many Catholic bishops refused the Oath of Supremacy and resigned or were removed, allowing her to replace them with more compliant and moderate Protestants. In the House of Lords, where Catholic bishops had considerable influence, Elizabeth used her councillors, such as William Cecil, to steer debates and suppress opposition. She also delayed the enforcement of more divisive measures, giving opponents time to adjust. By focusing on outward conformity rather than internal belief, she ensured that nobles and clergy could maintain private dissent while publicly adhering to her policies. This minimised confrontation and strengthened her regime’s stability in a highly sensitive period.
Royal progresses were a vital element of Elizabeth I’s early strategy to consolidate power and assert her visibility across England. Between 1558 and 1563, these journeys into the provinces served both symbolic and practical purposes. They reinforced her image as a monarch who was accessible and engaged with her people, especially important after the turbulence of previous reigns. Progresses allowed Elizabeth to display royal authority in person, especially in areas with strong Catholic leanings, such as the north and the midlands. They also allowed her to reduce court expenses by lodging in the homes of nobles and gentry, while strengthening loyalty through honouring hosts with her presence. Politically, progresses allowed Elizabeth to monitor the mood of the country, reward loyal subjects, and reinforce central government authority. By extending her influence into localities through ceremonial display and direct interaction, she enhanced both her legitimacy and her control, complementing the institutional reforms of her early reign.
Elizabeth I’s gender played a complex role in shaping perceptions of her authority from 1558 to 1563. As a female monarch in a patriarchal society, she faced immediate scepticism regarding her capability to govern effectively. Some critics cited scriptural and traditional arguments against female rule, arguing that women were naturally inferior and unsuited to political leadership. Elizabeth confronted these concerns through a deliberate crafting of her public image. She emphasised traits traditionally associated with masculinity—strength, intelligence, and resolve—while also leveraging feminine virtues such as chastity and grace. The symbolism of the “Virgin Queen” allowed her to position herself as married to her kingdom, avoiding the political complications of a foreign or domestic consort. In speeches, such as her address to Parliament in 1559, she reassured audiences of her divine right to rule and her commitment to her subjects’ welfare. Over time, her ability to navigate court politics, command loyalty, and deliver stability helped neutralise gender-based doubts.
The Royal Injunctions of 1559 were a crucial instrument in enforcing the Elizabethan Religious Settlement and ensuring nationwide conformity. Issued shortly after the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, these injunctions provided detailed instructions to clergy on how to implement the new religious framework in daily church practice. They required clergy to use the Book of Common Prayer, ensure that Bibles were available in English, remove all “superstitious” Catholic images and relics from churches, and preach in favour of royal supremacy. Importantly, they reasserted the Queen’s authority in church matters and demanded that clergy obtain a licence to preach. The injunctions were enforced by visitations, royal inspections carried out by commissioners who assessed compliance across parishes. These inspections created a system of surveillance that encouraged obedience among clergy and laity alike. The injunctions helped build a more standardised national church and allowed the Crown to monitor local resistance, making them central to the early consolidation of Protestantism.
William Cecil, Elizabeth I’s Principal Secretary, played a pivotal role in shaping both the political and religious policies of the early Elizabethan regime. A committed Protestant and skilled administrator, Cecil was instrumental in drafting and implementing the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. He worked tirelessly behind the scenes to ensure the passage of the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity, using persuasion, parliamentary management, and royal authority to overcome opposition. Politically, Cecil advised Elizabeth to pursue moderation to avoid provoking domestic unrest or foreign intervention. He also advocated for economic reform and supported currency stabilisation efforts. Cecil’s strategic mindset ensured that Elizabeth avoided hasty decisions, especially regarding marriage, foreign alliances, and religious persecution. He was central in managing intelligence, advising on foreign threats like France and Scotland, and promoting the Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560. His influence ensured continuity, professionalism, and cautious reform in government, earning him Elizabeth’s trust and helping to consolidate her authority in the volatile early years of her reign.
Practice Questions
To what extent did the Elizabethan Religious Settlement successfully consolidate Elizabeth I’s power between 1558 and 1563?
The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was crucial in consolidating Elizabeth’s power, offering a moderate Protestant compromise that reduced religious tensions. The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity reasserted royal authority and avoided the extremes of previous reigns. By promoting outward conformity and avoiding persecution, Elizabeth minimised unrest. Resistance from Catholics and Puritans was limited and effectively contained. Her careful balancing of doctrine and ceremony reassured both conservatives and reformers, allowing her to stabilise her rule. While tensions remained, especially among the nobility and clergy, the early implementation of the Settlement ensured political control and religious uniformity, securing her authority by 1563.
How significant were foreign policy challenges in shaping Elizabeth I’s early reign, 1558–1563?
Foreign policy challenges were highly significant in shaping Elizabeth’s early reign, compelling her to adopt a cautious and pragmatic approach. Threats from France, especially through Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, forced Elizabeth to back Protestant rebels, culminating in the Treaty of Edinburgh (1560), which curtailed French influence. Spain remained a potential threat, but Elizabeth maintained a delicate diplomacy, avoiding conflict. The Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis ended England’s war burden, allowing focus on internal stability. These actions demonstrated Elizabeth’s diplomatic skill and reinforced her authority. Though religious and economic issues were also pressing, foreign policy directly influenced her consolidation of power.
