Elizabeth I’s rule from 1563 to 1603 is marked by political dexterity, religious settlement, global conflict, and a vibrant cultural and societal transformation.
Elizabeth’s Style of Government
The Royal Court
Elizabeth I’s court was the centre of political power, culture, and influence. It was both a mobile political body and a symbol of the monarchy's prestige, travelling with the Queen on progresses around the country.
The court included a mix of nobles, servants, and officials.
It served not only to advise the Queen but also as a place where patronage and favour were distributed.
Elizabeth maintained control through personal charisma, using her position as monarch and her presence at court to maintain loyalty and mitigate factionalism.
Key Ministers
William Cecil (Lord Burghley)
Cecil was Elizabeth’s most trusted advisor, serving as Secretary of State and later Lord Treasurer.
He managed domestic and foreign policy with a cautious and pragmatic approach.
He was central in securing Elizabeth’s religious settlement and later managing the succession question and Mary Queen of Scots.
Francis Walsingham
Appointed Principal Secretary in 1573, Walsingham developed an extensive spy network.
He was key in countering Catholic plots and foreign threats, particularly the Babington Plot.
His intelligence services were crucial in preparing for the Spanish Armada.
Parliament
Parliament under Elizabeth was not a co-ruling body but a tool for governance.
It was summoned only when necessary, especially to grant subsidies or pass legislation.
Elizabeth vetoed bills, managed debates, and firmly controlled parliamentary privileges, especially around marriage and succession.
Despite its limited role, Parliament grew more assertive over time, particularly in the 1590s over issues such as monopolies.
Factional Disputes
Elizabeth skilfully balanced court factions, ensuring no single group dominated.
Rivalries between Cecil and the Earl of Leicester or later Robert Cecil and the Earl of Essex were kept in check.
Essex’s rebellion in 1601 was a rare breakdown in Elizabeth’s factional control, reflecting growing discontent at court in her later years.
The Succession Crisis and Foreign Threats
The Succession Crisis
Elizabeth’s decision to remain unmarried created persistent uncertainty.
She was often urged to marry to secure a Protestant heir, especially in the early years.
Potential suitors included Robert Dudley, Philip II of Spain, and the Duke of Anjou, but none were accepted.
The lack of an heir led to fears of civil war or foreign intervention upon her death.
Mary Queen of Scots
Mary’s presence in England from 1568 created a focus for Catholic opposition.
As a legitimate Catholic heir, Mary attracted conspiracies and rebellion.
Key plots involving Mary included:
Ridolfi Plot (1571)
Throckmorton Plot (1583)
Babington Plot (1586)
Walsingham’s intelligence uncovered the Babington Plot, leading to Mary’s execution in 1587, an act Elizabeth long resisted.
Catholic Threats
The Papal excommunication of Elizabeth (1570) by Pius V intensified Catholic opposition.
Jesuit missionaries arrived to convert and rally English Catholics.
The Catholic nobility, particularly in the north, became more suspicious and vulnerable to suspicion.
The Spanish Conflict and War
Spanish Relations and the Armada
Relations with Spain deteriorated through the 1570s and 1580s due to:
Religious differences (Catholic Spain vs Protestant England).
Support for Dutch rebels in the Netherlands.
English privateering (e.g. Francis Drake) against Spanish ships.
In 1588, Philip II launched the Spanish Armada to invade England.
England’s smaller, more manoeuvrable fleet, combined with poor Spanish planning and adverse weather, led to a decisive English victory.
The defeat of the Armada was celebrated as a divine endorsement of Protestant rule, though Spain remained a threat.
The War in the Netherlands
England supported the Protestant Dutch revolt against Spanish rule.
Troops were sent under the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585).
Although the campaign was not always successful, it distracted Spain and drained its resources.
War in Ireland
Ireland remained a troublesome territory, with frequent rebellion.
The most serious was the Tyrone Rebellion (1594–1603), also known as the Nine Years’ War.
It was fuelled by Catholic resistance and Spanish support.
The rebellion was only suppressed after the Battle of Kinsale (1601) and a costly military campaign.
Societal Continuity and Change
Class Structure
The Elizabethan social order was hierarchical and rigid, though signs of change emerged.
At the top stood the nobility and gentry, who expanded their influence, especially through court service.
The gentry class grew, acquiring land and influence due to rising education and commerce.
Below them, the yeomanry and urban middle class were also growing in economic and political importance.
At the base remained the labouring poor and vagrants, whose numbers increased with economic pressures.
Regional Governance
England was divided into counties, each overseen by Justices of the Peace (JPs), often drawn from the gentry.
JPs were essential in implementing royal policies at the local level, including poor relief, law enforcement, and economic regulation.
The Council of the North and Council of the Marches managed unrest in sensitive border regions.
Elizabeth ensured tight control over appointments, centralising power while avoiding unnecessary confrontation with local elites.
Rebellion: The Northern Earls (1569)
One of the most significant rebellions of Elizabeth’s reign:
Led by Thomas Percy (Earl of Northumberland) and Charles Neville (Earl of Westmorland).
Aimed to restore Catholicism and marry Mary Queen of Scots to the Duke of Norfolk.
The revolt failed due to poor coordination and lack of popular support.
After its suppression, Elizabeth cracked down on northern Catholicism and executed over 750 rebels, demonstrating firm authority.
Later Discontent and Social Tension
While large-scale rebellion was rare after 1569, the 1590s saw increasing unrest:
Food shortages, high prices, and poor harvests contributed to discontent.
The Oxfordshire Rising (1596) was minor and easily crushed, but it reflected rural desperation.
In urban centres, apprentice riots and anti-immigrant tensions appeared more frequently.
Despite these pressures, Elizabeth’s government maintained order, largely due to effective administration and local elite cooperation.
While a conclusion is not required, it is notable that Elizabeth’s later years were marked by increasing political strain, continued war with Spain, and rising economic hardship, yet her government structure and court management helped sustain stability. Her reign is remembered as a ‘Golden Age’, not because it was free from difficulty, but because Elizabeth navigated these challenges with political skill and cultural patronage that left a lasting legacy.
FAQ
Elizabeth I’s royal progresses were annual tours of various regions where she and her court travelled the country, staying in the homes of nobles and wealthy subjects. These journeys served a dual political and symbolic purpose. Firstly, they allowed Elizabeth to be seen by her subjects, which helped cultivate her image as the benevolent and ever-present monarch. This was particularly important in areas distant from London, where central authority could feel remote. Secondly, the progresses acted as a form of soft power, reinforcing loyalty among the gentry and nobility by honouring them with the Queen’s presence. Hosts would compete for favour, offering lavish hospitality, thereby strengthening patronage networks. These events also allowed Elizabeth to inspect regional governance informally and express royal approval or disapproval directly. Economically, they reduced the burden on the royal household budget, as the costs were borne by the hosts. Through progresses, Elizabeth maintained national visibility and unity in a period without mass media.
Patronage was a cornerstone of Elizabethan governance, acting as a mechanism through which loyalty, service, and political cooperation were rewarded and maintained. Elizabeth used appointments to key positions, grants of land, titles, and other honours to bind nobles and gentry to her service. By controlling access to advancement and influence, she ensured her court remained competitive but also dependent on her favour, limiting the risk of disloyalty. Major figures like William Cecil were elevated through this system, with loyalty repaid by long-term service. Patronage extended beyond the court: Justices of the Peace, regional councils, and even lower gentry could benefit, creating a broad political base of support. Additionally, the monopoly system, in which individuals were granted exclusive rights to trade or produce goods, allowed the Queen to reward courtiers economically. Though this system caused friction in later years, overall, patronage helped Elizabeth retain control over a politically diverse and ambitious elite.
Elizabeth I’s religious policies, particularly the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559, aimed to create a middle way between Roman Catholicism and radical Protestantism to promote national unity and avoid civil unrest. The establishment of the Church of England under the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity set a standardised form of worship, enforced through fines and public conformity. This outward conformity reduced the likelihood of open rebellion based on religious lines. However, underground Catholicism persisted, especially in the north, and Puritan groups challenged the church’s structure and ceremonies. Despite these tensions, Elizabeth’s tolerant approach, focusing on behaviour rather than belief, helped avoid widespread sectarian violence. By not aggressively pursuing non-conformists unless they were politically subversive, Elizabeth preserved a fragile but effective social peace. Religious divisions remained under the surface, but her policies allowed for day-to-day social cohesion, particularly among those willing to outwardly conform for the sake of stability.
The 1590s were marked by serious economic hardship, including harvest failures, food shortages, inflation, and a rising number of the poor. In response, Elizabeth’s government passed new poor laws and revised existing ones to better manage the growing crisis. The Act for the Relief of the Poor (1598) and the Act for the Punishment of Rogues sought to distinguish between the deserving and undeserving poor. Parishes were given the responsibility to provide relief, leading to the appointment of Overseers of the Poor, who collected local taxes and distributed aid. At the same time, vagrancy and begging were criminalised more harshly to discourage social unrest. Additionally, wage controls and grain hoarding regulations were attempted but were often difficult to enforce. Though not entirely successful, these measures represented an early form of state welfare and showed that the Elizabethan government recognised the need for intervention, especially during times of widespread economic dislocation and hunger.
The Earl of Essex’s rebellion failed largely due to poor planning, lack of popular support, and swift government response. Once a favoured courtier, Essex fell from Elizabeth’s grace after mishandling military campaigns in Ireland and defying orders. In an act of desperation, he sought to regain influence by launching a coup against Elizabeth’s government, hoping to rally support in London and replace rival councillors, particularly Robert Cecil. However, Essex overestimated his popularity and underestimated Elizabeth’s control over the capital. The Privy Council quickly declared him a traitor, and few supporters rallied to his cause. He was blocked in the city, forced to surrender, and arrested within hours. The rebellion also lacked coordination and broader noble backing. Its failure reflected Elizabeth’s still-strong authority and the efficiency of her inner circle, especially the intelligence network and political apparatus developed under Cecil and Walsingham. Essex was executed shortly after, serving as a warning against challenging royal authority.
Practice Questions
‘Elizabeth I’s government between 1563 and 1603 was dominated by factional conflict.’ Assess the validity of this view.
While factional conflict existed, particularly between figures like Cecil and the Earl of Essex, Elizabeth largely maintained control through careful patronage and political skill. She balanced rivalries at court, ensuring no faction gained dominance. Even serious threats, such as Essex’s rebellion in 1601, were the exception rather than the rule. Most ministers, including Cecil and Walsingham, cooperated effectively in supporting Elizabeth’s policies. Parliament was also largely compliant. Therefore, while tensions were present, factional conflict did not dominate Elizabeth’s government; rather, her authority and ability to manage her ministers ensured relative political stability throughout her reign.
To what extent did foreign threats shape the policies of Elizabethan government between 1563 and 1603?
Foreign threats significantly influenced Elizabethan government policy. The Spanish Armada, Catholic plots linked to Mary Queen of Scots, and involvement in the Netherlands conflict led to militarisation and tighter internal security, including Walsingham’s spy network. Elizabeth’s cautious diplomacy and limited foreign engagements reflected fears of invasion and religious war. The execution of Mary in 1587 was driven by fears of foreign-backed Catholic uprisings. However, domestic issues such as economic hardship and social unrest also shaped policy, especially in the 1590s. Thus, foreign threats were crucial but worked alongside internal pressures in shaping the government’s priorities.
