Elizabeth I’s reign saw transformative economic changes and a flourishing of culture. Despite hardship, this period laid foundations for England’s imperial and artistic rise.
Trade Expansion and the Rise of Merchant Adventurers
Overseas Trade and Economic Growth
The latter half of the 16th century witnessed significant expansion in English trade, both in terms of volume and geographical scope. This development was a result of:
Improved navigation and ship design, allowing longer voyages.
A growing urban merchant class, eager to challenge the dominance of Hanseatic and Spanish merchants.
Elizabeth’s interest in weakening Spanish and Portuguese monopolies in global trade.
England’s trade networks expanded into:
The Baltic and Russia, via the Muscovy Company (1555), securing valuable furs, timber, and naval stores.
The Levant, through the Levant Company (1581), establishing trade in silks, spices, and luxury goods with the Ottoman Empire.
Africa, including early involvement in the slave trade and gold commerce, though less successfully than Iberian rivals.
The Merchant Adventurers
The Merchant Adventurers were a powerful trading company whose monopoly over cloth exports made them central to Elizabethan commerce:
Based primarily in London, they exported English woollen cloth to Antwerp, later Hamburg and Emden, adapting to political instability in Europe.
They laid the groundwork for state-sponsored capitalism, combining commerce with national interest.
Their influence declined slightly with the rise of new companies, like the East India Company (1600), which marked England’s entry into the spice trade and long-distance colonial competition.
The Spirit of Exploration
Driven by rivalry with Spain and a thirst for wealth, Elizabethan exploration was both entrepreneurial and political.
Sir Francis Drake
First Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (1577–1580), bringing prestige and plunder.
His raids on Spanish ports and ships in the Americas challenged Spanish supremacy and helped fund Elizabeth’s state.
Sir Walter Raleigh
Attempted to found colonies in North America, particularly Roanoke Island (1585, 1587). Though ultimately unsuccessful, these efforts inspired future colonisation.
Privateering
Sanctioned by Elizabeth, English explorers doubled as privateers, attacking Spanish ships under royal license.
This blended state power with private initiative, blurring the line between piracy and policy.
These ventures laid the foundations for England’s future as a global imperial power, even if early colonisation attempts failed.
Economic Challenges and Domestic Strain
Poverty and Legislation
Despite trading gains, Elizabethan England was economically unstable for much of the reign, marked by:
Rising poverty, with estimates suggesting up to 30% of the population were classed as poor by the 1590s.
Growth in vagrancy and homelessness, viewed not only as economic problems but also as moral and political threats.
Poor Laws
In response, Elizabeth’s government passed a series of Poor Laws, culminating in the 1601 Act for the Relief of the Poor, which:
Established a parish-based system to care for the deserving poor.
Imposed taxes for local poor relief, known as the poor rate.
Differentiated between the “impotent” poor (deserving) and the “idle” poor (undeserving), the latter often punished.
These reforms were a milestone in early welfare policy, though their effectiveness varied widely across regions.
Taxation and Government Revenue
Elizabeth’s government struggled with inadequate royal income, relying on:
Crown lands and customs duties, which were relatively static sources.
Occasional parliamentary subsidies, often requested during times of war or emergency.
However, taxation remained regressive and unpopular, especially as prices rose and wages stagnated.
Inflation and Economic Cycles
The 16th century experienced a general price revolution:
Prices, especially for food and fuel, more than doubled between 1500 and 1600.
This was caused by population growth, debasement of coinage (especially under Henry VIII), and influxes of silver from the New World inflating the European economy.
Cycles of prosperity and depression followed:
Early Elizabethan years were relatively stable.
The 1590s were marked by poor harvests, food shortages, and inflation, leading to malnutrition and increased mortality among the lower classes.
Cultural Renaissance: The ‘Golden Age’ of English Arts
Literature
The Elizabethan age is often regarded as the golden age of English literature, marked by:
The rise of secular drama, epitomised by William Shakespeare, who began writing plays in the 1590s. His works reflected political and social themes of the era.
Christopher Marlowe, who pioneered blank verse tragedy with plays such as Doctor Faustus.
Poets like Edmund Spenser, whose epic The Faerie Queene (1590) celebrated Elizabeth and Protestantism.
The printing press facilitated the spread of literature, though literacy was still limited to wealthier men and women.
Music
Music flourished at both court and public levels:
Court composers, such as William Byrd and Thomas Tallis, produced intricate polyphonic music for royal and church settings.
Lute songs and madrigals gained popularity among the gentry.
Theatres and taverns featured live performances, blending high art with popular culture.
Music served religious, political, and entertainment purposes, reflecting both elite and folk traditions.
Visual Arts
The Elizabethan period also saw developments in portraiture and decorative arts:
Portraiture was used to project royal authority, especially through stylised images of Gloriana, the virgin queen.
Artists like Nicholas Hilliard crafted intricate miniatures that were symbols of status and political loyalty.
Architecture reflected Renaissance influence, with wealthy courtiers building lavish prodigy houses (e.g. Longleat, Hardwick Hall) to display power and cultural sophistication.
Religious Continuity and Change
The Protestant Settlement and Aftermath
Although the initial Elizabethan Settlement occurred in the early 1560s, its implications continued throughout the reign. Key features included:
The Act of Uniformity (1559), enforcing the use of the Book of Common Prayer.
The Act of Supremacy (1559), which re-established Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
These laws shaped religious life but did not eliminate division.
Catholic Threats
Despite state Protestantism, Catholicism survived, particularly in the north and among aristocratic households.
The papal excommunication of Elizabeth (1570) by Pope Pius V emboldened resistance.
Catholic plots, such as the Ridolfi (1571), Throckmorton (1583), and Babington (1586), aimed to replace Elizabeth with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic claimant.
In response, Parliament passed increasingly harsh penal laws against recusants (those refusing to attend Anglican services).
Catholics became marginalised and persecuted, with limited ability to practise openly.
Puritan Pressure
At the opposite end of the religious spectrum, Puritans sought further reform of the Church:
They criticised the hierarchical structure of the Church and the retention of ritual and ornamentation.
Elizabeth resisted their calls for presbyterianism, fearing that it threatened royal control over the Church.
The Vestiarian Controversy (1560s) and later Admonitions to Parliament (1570s) exemplified Puritan discontent.
Though Puritan influence grew in Parliament and local communities, Elizabeth maintained a moderate Protestant stance.
Enforcement of Conformity
The state’s aim was to enforce outward conformity, even if inward belief varied:
Attendance at Church of England services was mandatory under threat of fines or imprisonment.
The Court of High Commission investigated heresy and nonconformity.
The government used censorship, licensing of preachers, and surveillance of dissidents to maintain order.
The result was a relatively stable religious compromise, though tensions simmered throughout Elizabeth’s reign.
FAQ
The Elizabethan regime effectively used propaganda to project an image of national stability and prosperity, even during times of economic hardship. Portraits of Elizabeth I, such as the Armada Portrait, symbolised strength, divine favour, and unyielding monarchy, reinforcing the idea that her reign was both prosperous and divinely ordained. Public pageants, progresses, and literature—particularly court-sponsored works—were curated to glorify Elizabeth as a bringer of peace and prosperity. The language used in government proclamations and printed materials often exaggerated England’s success in trade, war, and exploration. The image of the “Golden Age” was deliberately fostered by the regime to bolster national unity and the legitimacy of the monarch, distracting from the economic challenges experienced by many. This carefully curated image influenced how the period was remembered, making it seem more successful and culturally unified than the reality of regional disparities, social strain, and the growing problem of poverty would suggest.
Although women were largely excluded from political and formal economic power, they played subtle yet significant roles in both cultural and economic developments. Elite women, particularly those at court or in aristocratic households, acted as patrons of the arts, commissioning plays, portraits, and literary works. Queen Elizabeth herself was a powerful symbol of female rule and cultural patronage, often depicted as a virgin goddess or wise ruler in poetry and iconography, which influenced broader representations of femininity. In the economy, women ran small businesses, especially in urban areas—breweries, textiles, and retail—despite facing legal and institutional restrictions. Widows and unmarried women sometimes inherited or managed property and could wield considerable influence in local economies. In the theatre world, although women were banned from performing onstage, they played roles behind the scenes in managing inns and venues where plays were staged. Women’s cultural contributions, though often hidden, were essential to the vibrancy of Elizabethan society.
The rapid rise of public theatres in Elizabethan England—such as The Theatre (1576) and The Globe (1599)—mirrored broader economic and social shifts. With a growing urban population and increasing disposable income among the middling classes, demand for affordable entertainment surged. Theatres became commercial ventures, often backed by wealthy patrons and actors-turned-investors, reflecting a market-driven culture. These spaces were social melting pots, bringing together audiences from different classes—nobles in the galleries and artisans in the pit—highlighting a society increasingly shaped by urbanisation and commercialisation. The themes explored in plays often addressed contemporary anxieties: social mobility, governance, morality, and national identity. Playwrights like Shakespeare and Marlowe used their works to critique, subtly or directly, the inequalities and tensions of the age. The commercial success of theatre also created new professions and income streams, showing how cultural activity was tied closely to economic opportunity in Elizabeth’s England.
Elizabethan economic policy, though not centralised or highly interventionist by modern standards, aimed to encourage domestic industry through a combination of regulation, privilege, and taxation. One key method was the granting of monopolies—exclusive rights to produce or sell certain goods—to loyal courtiers and merchants. While this often led to price inflation and public resentment, it did stimulate domestic production in areas such as ironworking, glassmaking, and textiles. The government also passed sumptuary laws and enforced quality standards to protect English-made goods from foreign competition and encourage national consumption. Charters were granted to companies like the Company of Mineral and Battery Works, promoting industrial innovation. Apprenticeship systems, overseen by craft guilds, ensured a trained labour force for local industries. Although patchy and regionally inconsistent, these policies showed a growing awareness of the importance of self-sufficiency, especially given tensions with Spain and reliance on foreign imports. Domestic industry was thus both economically and politically strategic.
The Elizabethan regime’s push for religious conformity had a direct and profound impact on cultural expression, especially in literature, drama, and music. The Act of Uniformity and related penal laws created a cultural atmosphere in which overt religious dissent could be dangerous. As a result, writers and artists often veiled religious themes behind allegory or classical references. Playwrights, for instance, had to navigate censorship from the Master of the Revels, avoiding topics deemed too controversial or politically sensitive. Public performance of overtly Catholic or Puritan works was banned, limiting religious pluralism in cultural media. Yet, this environment also stimulated innovation: artists had to develop more nuanced, metaphorical ways of expressing belief and critique, enriching the complexity of Elizabethan cultural production. Music in churches became more controlled, with composers like William Byrd adapting to restrictions while still embedding rich Catholic undertones in compositions approved for Anglican worship. Thus, conformity pressures shaped the content and form of Elizabethan art.
Practice Questions
‘Trade and exploration were the most significant developments in Elizabethan England between 1558 and 1603.’ Assess the validity of this view.
While trade and exploration were transformative—boosting England’s global position and fuelling economic ambition—they were not the sole or most significant developments. The cultural renaissance, notably in literature and music, profoundly shaped national identity. Furthermore, economic hardship and religious tension impacted the daily lives of more people. Exploration mainly benefited elites and had limited immediate effect. Although trade expansion and colonisation attempts laid vital foundations for imperial growth, the Elizabethan religious settlement and responses to socio-economic challenges arguably had greater short-term and widespread significance, particularly in shaping the stability and governance of Elizabethan society.
To what extent did economic difficulties define the Elizabethan period between 1558 and 1603?
Economic difficulties were a defining feature of Elizabeth’s reign, especially during the 1590s, with inflation, poverty, and food shortages affecting much of the population. The introduction of Poor Laws and poor relief policies reveals the scale of the problem and the government’s struggle to contain unrest. However, this view overlooks cultural flourishing and relative political stability achieved despite hardship. The era’s literary and artistic growth, alongside significant religious and diplomatic developments, suggests a more complex picture. While economic issues were severe, they were part of a wider set of challenges and achievements that characterised the Elizabethan period.
