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AP Psychology

Study Notes
1.1.1 Nature, Nurture, and Behavior
1.1.2 What Heredity Means in Psychology
1.1.3 What Environment Means in Psychology
1.1.4 Evolutionary Perspectives on Behavior
1.1.5 Eugenics and the Misuse of Evolutionary Ideas
1.1.6 How Psychologists Study Heredity and Environment
1.2.1 The Central Nervous System
1.2.2 The Peripheral Nervous System
1.2.3 The Autonomic Nervous System
1.2.4 The Somatic Nervous System
1.3.1 Neurons and Glial Cells
1.3.2 Reflex Arcs and Types of Neurons
1.3.3 How Neural Transmission Works
1.3.4 When Neural Transmission Is Disrupted
1.3.5 Key Neurotransmitters in AP Psychology
1.3.6 Hormones and Behavior
1.3.7 How Psychoactive Drugs Affect Neural Communication
1.3.8 Drug Categories, Tolerance, and Addiction
1.4.1 Brain Stem and Medulla
1.4.2 Reticular Activating System and Reward Center
1.4.3 Cerebellum and Procedural Learning
1.4.4 Cerebral Cortex, Hemispheres, and the Limbic System
1.4.5 Occipital and Temporal Lobes
1.4.6 Parietal and Frontal Lobes
1.4.7 Split-Brain Research and Language Lateralization
1.4.8 Plasticity and Brain Research Methods
1.5.1 Consciousness, Sleep, and Wakefulness
1.5.2 Circadian Rhythms and the Sleep/Wake Cycle
1.5.3 How EEG Identifies Sleep Stages
1.5.4 NREM Sleep and Hypnagogic Sensations
1.5.5 REM Sleep, Dreaming, and REM Rebound
1.5.6 Theories of Dreaming
1.5.7 Why Do We Sleep?
1.5.8 Sleep Disorders and Daytime Performance
1.6.1 Detecting Stimuli and Sensory Thresholds
1.6.2 Sensory Interaction and Synesthesia
1.6.3 Vision: From Retina to Brain
1.6.4 Vision: Rods, Cones, and Color Perception
1.6.5 Visual Disorders and Brain-Based Vision Problems
1.6.6 Hearing and the Auditory System
1.6.7 Chemical Senses and Touch
1.6.8 Pain, Balance, and Body Position
2.1.1 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing
2.1.2 Schemas, Perceptual Sets, and Context
2.1.3 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
2.1.4 Attention and the Cocktail Party Effect
2.1.5 Inattention and Change Blindness
2.1.6 Binocular Depth Cues
2.1.7 Monocular Depth Cues
2.1.8 Perceptual Constancies and Apparent Motion
2.2.1 Concepts and Prototypes
2.2.2 Schemas: Assimilation and Accommodation
2.2.3 Algorithms in Problem-Solving
2.2.4 Heuristics and Judgment Errors
2.2.5 Mental Set, Priming, and Framing
2.2.6 Gambler's Fallacy and the Sunk-Cost Fallacy
2.2.7 Executive Functions and Critical Thinking
2.2.8 Creativity, Divergent Thinking, and Functional Fixedness
2.3.1 Types of Memory: Explicit, Implicit, and Prospective
2.3.2 Long-Term Potentiation and the Biology of Memory
2.3.3 The Working Memory Model
2.3.4 The Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.3.5 The Levels of Processing Model
2.4.1 How Encoding Affects Memory
2.4.2 Mnemonic Devices and the Method of Loci
2.4.3 Chunking, Categories, and Hierarchies
2.4.4 The Spacing Effect
2.4.5 The Serial Position Effect
2.5.1 Types of Memory Storage
2.5.2 Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal
2.5.3 Autobiographical Memory and Superior Memory
2.5.4 Storage Problems: Amnesia, Alzheimer's Disease, and Infantile Amnesia
2.6.1 Recall and Recognition
2.6.2 Context-, Mood-, and State-Dependent Memory
2.6.3 Retrieval Practice, Testing Effects, and Metacognition
2.7.1 The Forgetting Curve
2.7.2 Why Retrieval Fails: Encoding Failure, Interference, and Tip-of-the-Tongue
2.7.3 Repression and Psychodynamic Explanations
2.7.4 False Memories and Memory Distortion
2.8.1 Theories of Intelligence: g and Multiple Abilities
2.8.2 IQ Testing: Mental Age, Chronological Age, and Modern Use
2.8.3 Standardization, Validity, and Reliability
2.8.4 Culturally Responsive Intelligence Testing
2.8.5 The Flynn Effect
2.8.6 Bias, Group Differences, and Social Influences on IQ
2.8.7 The Historical Uses and Misuses of Intelligence Testing
2.8.8 Achievement, Aptitude, and Mindset
3.1.1 Key Themes in Development
3.1.2 Nature vs Nurture Debate
3.1.3 Stability vs Change
3.1.4 Continuous vs Discontinuous Development
3.1.5 Cross-Sectional Research Design
3.1.6 Longitudinal Research Design
3.2.1 Prenatal Influences on Development
3.2.2 Infant and Childhood Motor Development
3.2.3 Infant Reflexes and Survival
3.2.4 Depth Perception and the Visual Cliff
3.2.5 Critical Periods and Imprinting
3.2.6 Adolescent Physical Development
3.2.7 Physical Changes in Adulthood
3.3.1 Sex and Gender in Development
3.3.2 Gender Roles and Socialization
3.3.3 Sexual Orientation and Development
3.4.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
3.4.2 Sensorimotor Stage
3.4.3 Preoperational Stage
3.4.4 Concrete Operational Stage
3.4.5 Formal Operational Stage
3.4.6 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
3.4.7 Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
3.5.1 Structure of Language
3.5.2 Language Development Stages
3.5.3 Nonverbal Communication
3.5.4 Language Errors and Learning
3.6.1 Ecological Systems Theory
3.6.2 Parenting Styles
3.6.3 Attachment Styles
3.6.4 Peer Relationships and Development
3.6.5 Adult Social Development
3.6.6 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
3.6.7 Adverse Childhood Experiences
3.6.8 Identity Development in Adolescence
3.7.1 Principles of Classical Conditioning
3.7.2 Components of Conditioning
3.7.3 Extinction and Recovery
3.7.4 Generalization and Discrimination
3.7.5 Biological Constraints and Learning
3.7.6 Applications of Classical Conditioning
3.8.1 Principles of Operant Conditioning
3.8.2 Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
3.8.3 Shaping and Instinctive Drift
3.8.4 Learned Helplessness and Superstition
3.8.5 Reinforcement Schedules
3.9.1 Social Learning Theory
3.9.2 Insight Learning
3.9.3 Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
4.1.1 Dispositional and Situational Attributions
4.1.2 Optimistic and Pessimistic Explanatory Styles
4.1.3 Attribution Biases in Everyday Judgment
4.1.4 Internal and External Locus of Control
4.1.5 The Mere Exposure Effect
4.1.6 Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
4.1.7 Social Comparison and Relative Deprivation
4.2.1 Stereotypes as Cognitive Shortcuts
4.2.2 From Stereotypes to Prejudice and Discrimination
4.2.3 Implicit Attitudes and Unseen Bias
4.2.4 Just-World Thinking, In-Group Bias, and Ethnocentrism
4.2.5 Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias
4.2.6 Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude Change
4.3.1 Social Norms and Social Influence
4.3.2 Routes to Persuasion
4.3.3 Foot-in-the-Door and Door-in-the-Face
4.3.4 Conformity and Obedience
4.3.5 Culture and the Self in Social Contexts
4.3.6 Group Processes and Group Behavior
4.3.7 Performance, Agreement, and Group Goals
4.3.8 Prosocial Behavior and the Bystander Effect
4.4.1 The Unconscious in Psychodynamic Theory
4.4.2 Ego Defense Mechanisms
4.4.3 Projective Tests and Personality Assessment
4.4.4 Humanistic Personality Theory
4.5.1 Reciprocal Determinism and Personality
4.5.2 Self-Concept, Self-Efficacy, and Self-Esteem
4.5.3 Trait Theory and Enduring Characteristics
4.5.4 The Big Five Personality Traits
4.5.5 Personality Inventories and Factor Analysis
4.6.1 Drive-Reduction Theory and Homeostasis
4.6.2 Arousal Theory and the Yerkes-Dodson Law
4.6.3 Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Incentive Motivation
4.6.4 Instinct Theory and Animal Behavior
4.6.5 Lewin's Motivational Conflicts
4.6.6 Sensation Seeking
4.6.7 Eating as a Motivated Behavior
4.6.8 Hormones and External Cues for Eating
4.7.1 Emotion as a Psychological Process
4.7.2 Physiology, Cognition, and Emotional Experience
4.7.3 The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
4.7.4 Positive and Negative Emotions in the Broaden-and-Build Theory
4.7.5 Universal Emotions Across Cultures
4.7.6 Display Rules and Cultural Differences in Emotion
5.1.1 What Is Health Psychology?
5.1.2 How Stress Affects Health
5.1.3 Types and Sources of Stress
5.1.4 General Adaptation Syndrome
5.1.5 Tend-and-Befriend Responses
5.1.6 Coping with Stress
5.2.1 What Is Positive Psychology?
5.2.2 Gratitude and Subjective Well-Being
5.2.3 Signature Strengths and Virtues
5.2.4 Posttraumatic Growth
5.3.1 What Makes a Behavior a Psychological Disorder?
5.3.2 Benefits, Harms, and Bias in Diagnosis
5.3.3 The DSM, the ICD, and Professional Diagnosis
5.3.4 Why Psychologists Use Multiple Perspectives
5.3.5 Behavioral, Cognitive, and Biological Explanations
5.3.6 Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Explanations
5.3.7 Interaction Models of Psychopathology
5.4.1 Neurodevelopmental Disorders: ADHD and ASD
5.4.2 Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders
5.4.3 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
5.4.4 Anxiety Disorders
5.4.5 Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
5.4.6 Dissociative and Trauma-Related Disorders
5.4.7 Feeding and Eating Disorders
5.4.8 Personality Disorders
5.5.1 Research on Psychotherapy Effectiveness
5.5.2 Deinstitutionalization and Modern Treatment Trends
5.5.3 Ethics in Psychological Treatment
5.5.4 Psychodynamic Therapy Techniques
5.5.5 Cognitive and Behavior Therapies
5.5.6 Humanistic, Cognitive-Behavioral, and Group Therapies
5.5.7 Hypnosis in Treatment
5.5.8 Biological Interventions

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