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Edexcel A-Level Chemistry

Study Notes
1.1.1 Subatomic Particles and Atomic Structure
1.1.2 Atomic Number, Mass Number and Particle Counts
1.1.3 Isotopes and the Development of Atomic Models
1.2.1 Relative Isotopic Mass and Relative Atomic Mass
1.2.2 Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass
1.2.3 Isotopic Abundance and Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
1.2.4 Mass Spectra of Diatomic Molecules
1.2.5 Molecular Ions and Relative Molecular Mass
1.3.1 First and Successive Ionisation Energies
1.3.2 Factors Affecting Ionisation Energy
1.3.3 First Ionisation Energy Across Periods and Down Groups
1.3.4 Successive Ionisation Energy Data and Electron Shells
1.4.1 Atomic Emission Spectra and Quantum Shells
1.4.2 First Ionisation Energy Evidence for Subshells
1.4.3 Quantum Shell Capacities and Atomic Orbitals
1.4.4 s, p and d Subshells and Orbital Shapes
1.4.5 Electron Filling and Spin Rules
1.5.1 Electronic Configurations of Atoms
1.5.2 Electronic Configurations of Ions
1.5.3 s-, p- and d-Block Elements
1.5.4 Electronic Configuration and Chemical Properties
1.6.1 Periodicity and Repeating Patterns
1.6.2 Melting and Boiling Temperature Trends
1.6.3 Ionisation Energy Trends in Periods 2 and 3
1.6.4 Using Data to Illustrate Periodicity
2.1.1 Ionic Bonding and Bond Strength
2.1.2 Formation of Ions and Dot-and-Cross Diagrams
2.1.3 Trends in Ionic Radii
2.1.4 Evidence for the Existence of Ions
2.2.1 Covalent Bonds and Multiple Bonds
2.2.2 Dative Covalent Bonding
2.2.3 Covalent Bond Length and Bond Strength
2.2.4 Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory and Molecular Shapes
2.2.5 Predicting Shapes and Bond Angles
2.3.1 Electronegativity and the Bonding Continuum
2.3.2 Bond Polarity and Molecular Polarity
2.4.1 London Forces and Permanent Dipole–Dipole Forces
2.4.2 Hydrogen Bonding
2.4.3 Hydrogen Bonding and the Anomalous Properties of Water
2.4.4 Boiling Temperatures of Alkanes and Alcohols
2.4.5 Boiling Temperatures of the Hydrogen Halides
2.5.1 Water as a Solvent for Ionic Compounds and Alcohols
2.5.2 Solubility in Water and Non-Aqueous Solvents
2.6.1 Metallic Bonding
2.6.2 Giant Ionic, Covalent and Metallic Lattices
2.6.3 Simple Molecular Structures
2.6.4 Diamond, Graphite and Graphene
2.7.1 Identifying Structure and Bonding from Data
2.7.2 Predicting Physical Properties from Structure and Bonding
3.1.1 Oxidation Numbers and Their Calculation
3.1.2 Oxidation Numbers in Names and Formulae
3.2.1 Oxidation and Reduction
3.2.2 Oxidising and Reducing Agents
3.2.3 Formation of Ions by Metals and Non-Metals
3.3.1 Identifying Redox Reactions Using Oxidation Numbers
3.3.2 Disproportionation Reactions
3.3.3 Ionic Half-Equations and Full Ionic Equations
4.1.1 Ionisation Energy Down Group 2
4.1.2 Reactivity Down Group 2
4.1.3 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
4.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Oxides and Hydroxides
4.2.2 Solubility Trends in Group 2 Hydroxides and Sulfates
4.3.1 Thermal Stability of Group 1 and 2 Nitrates and Carbonates
4.3.2 Investigating Thermal Decomposition
4.3.3 Flame Colours and Electron Transitions
4.3.4 Flame Test Procedures
4.4.1 Physical Trends and Electronegativity in Group 7
4.4.2 Reactivity Down Group 7
4.4.3 Halogen Displacement Reactions
4.4.4 Predicting the Properties of Fluorine and Astatine
4.5.1 Halogen Reactions with Group 1 and 2 Metals
4.5.2 Chlorine with Water and Water Treatment
4.5.3 Chlorine with Cold and Hot Alkali
4.5.4 Analogous Reactions of Other Halogens
4.6.1 Group 1 Halides with Concentrated Sulfuric Acid
4.6.2 Testing Halide Ions with Silver Nitrate and Ammonia
4.6.3 Hydrogen Halides with Ammonia and Water
4.7.1 Testing for Carbonate and Hydrogencarbonate Ions
4.7.2 Testing for Sulfate Ions
4.7.3 Testing for Ammonium Ions
5.1.1 The Mole and Amount of Substance
5.1.2 The Avogadro Constant and Number of Particles
5.1.3 Molar Mass and Mass–Mole Calculations
5.1.4 Empirical Formulae from Experimental Data
5.1.5 Molecular Formulae and Gas Data
5.2.1 Writing Balanced Full Equations
5.2.2 Writing Ionic Equations
5.2.3 Amounts of Substance in Chemical Reactions
5.2.4 Reacting Mass Calculations
5.2.5 Reacting Gas Volumes and Molar Volume
5.3.1 Concentration Units and Solution Calculations
5.3.2 Preparing Standard Solutions from Solids
5.3.3 Acid–Base Titration Calculations
5.3.4 Indicators and Titration Practical Skills
5.4.1 Measurement Uncertainty and Percentage Calculations
5.4.2 Random and Systematic Errors
5.4.3 Minimising Error and Managing Practical Risk
5.5.1 Percentage Yield Calculations
5.5.2 Atom Economy and Resource Efficiency
5.5.3 Displacement and Acid Reactions
5.5.4 Precipitation Reactions and Salt Preparation
6.1.1 Hydrocarbons and Organic Formulae
6.1.2 Homologous Series and Functional Groups
6.1.3 IUPAC Naming of Organic Compounds
6.1.4 Classifying Organic Reactions
6.1.5 Structural Isomerism
6.1.6 E/Z and Cis–Trans Isomerism
6.2.1 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
6.2.2 Fractional Distillation, Cracking and Reforming
6.2.3 Combustion of Alkane Fuels
6.2.4 Fuel Pollutants and Their Effects
6.2.5 Catalytic Converters and Alternative Fuels
6.2.6 Radical Substitution of Alkanes
6.3.1 Structure and Bonding in Alkenes
6.3.2 Hydrogenation and Hydration of Alkenes
6.3.3 Halogenation, Hydrohalogenation and Oxidation
6.3.4 Electrophiles, Heterolytic Fission and Curly Arrows
6.3.5 Unsymmetrical Alkenes and Carbocation Stability
6.3.6 Testing for Carbon–Carbon Double Bonds
6.4.1 Addition Polymerisation and Repeat Units
6.4.2 Recycling, Incineration and Feedstock Recycling
6.4.3 Polymer Life Cycles and Sustainable Materials
6.4.4 Biodegradable Polymers and Cleaner Incineration
6.5.1 Classification of Halogenoalkanes and Nucleophiles
6.5.2 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
6.5.3 Elimination Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
6.5.4 Hydrolysis Rates and Core Practical 4
6.5.5 Reactivity Trends in Halogenoalkanes
6.5.6 Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanisms
6.6.1 Classification and Combustion of Alcohols
6.6.2 Converting Alcohols into Halogenoalkanes
6.6.3 Oxidation of Primary Alcohols and Aldehyde Tests
6.6.4 Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols
6.6.5 Dehydration of Alcohols to Alkenes
6.6.6 Preparing and Purifying Liquid Organic Compounds
7.1.1 Interpreting Mass Spectra and m/z Values
7.1.2 Molecular Ion Peaks and Relative Molecular Mass
7.1.3 Fragmentation Patterns and Structural Identification
7.2.1 Interpreting Infrared Spectra and Wavenumber Data
7.2.2 C–H and C=C Infrared Absorptions
7.2.3 O–H Absorptions in Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
7.2.4 C=O Absorptions in Carbonyl Compounds
7.2.5 N–H Absorptions in Amines
7.2.6 Identifying Unknowns Using Analytical Evidence
8.1.1 Standard Conditions and Enthalpy Change
8.1.2 Exothermic and Endothermic Enthalpy Level Diagrams
8.1.3 Enthalpy Level Diagrams and Reaction Profiles
8.1.4 Standard Enthalpy Changes
8.2.1 Measuring Enthalpy Changes by Solution Calorimetry
8.2.2 Measuring Enthalpy Changes of Combustion
8.2.3 Calculating Energy Transfer Using Q = mcΔT
8.2.4 Calculating Molar Enthalpy Changes from Experimental Data
8.2.5 Evaluating Calorimetry Experiments
8.2.6 Temperature-Time Graphs in Calorimetry
8.3.1 Hess's Law and Indirect Enthalpy Measurements
8.3.2 Constructing Enthalpy Cycles
8.3.3 Calculating Enthalpy Changes Using Hess's Law
8.3.4 Core Practical 8: Determining Enthalpy Change Using Hess's Law
8.4.1 Bond Enthalpy and Mean Bond Enthalpy
8.4.2 Calculating Reaction Enthalpy from Mean Bond Enthalpies
8.4.3 Limitations of Mean Bond Enthalpy Calculations
8.4.4 Calculating Mean Bond Enthalpies
9.1.1 Collision Theory and Reaction Rate
9.1.2 Activation Energy and Successful Collisions
9.1.3 Effects of Concentration and Pressure on Reaction Rate
9.1.4 Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate
9.1.5 Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
9.2.1 Calculating Rate from Reaction Time
9.2.2 Calculating Rate from Graph Gradients
9.2.3 Investigating Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
9.2.4 Interpreting Reaction-Rate Graphs
9.3.1 The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Molecular Energies
9.3.2 Temperature and the Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
9.4.1 Catalysts and Alternative Reaction Routes
9.4.2 Catalysed and Uncatalysed Reaction Profiles
9.4.3 Catalysts and Maxwell-Boltzmann Distributions
9.4.4 Heterogeneous Catalysts in Gas-Phase Reactions
9.4.5 Economic Benefits of Industrial Catalysts
9.4.6 Investigating Catalysis Using Hydrogen Peroxide
10.1.1 Reversible Reactions and Closed Systems
10.1.2 Characteristics of Dynamic Equilibrium
10.2.1 Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium
10.2.2 Effect of Pressure on Equilibrium
10.2.3 Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium
10.2.4 Investigating Equilibrium Shifts
10.3.1 The Compromise Between Equilibrium Yield and Reaction Rate
10.3.2 Evaluating Industrial Equilibrium Data
10.4.1 Deducing Kc Expressions for Homogeneous Equilibria
10.4.2 Deducing Kc Expressions for Heterogeneous Equilibria
11.1.1 Kp Expressions for Homogeneous Equilibria
11.1.2 Kp Expressions for Heterogeneous Equilibria
11.1.3 Kc Calculations from Equilibrium Data
11.1.4 Kp Calculations from Equilibrium Data
11.1.5 Experimental Determination and Interpretation of Equilibrium Constants
11.2.1 Temperature Effects on Kc and Kp
11.2.2 Explaining Equilibrium Shifts Using the Equilibrium Constant
11.3.1 Effects of Concentration and Pressure Changes
11.3.2 Catalysts and Equilibrium Constants
12.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids, Bases and Proton Transfer
12.1.2 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
12.2.1 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration
12.2.2 Strong and Weak Acids
12.2.3 Calculating the pH of Strong Acids
12.3.1 Ka Expressions and Calculations
12.3.2 Calculating the pH of Weak Acids
12.3.3 Determining Ka from Experimental Data
12.4.1 The Ionic Product of Water
12.4.2 Calculating the pH of Strong Bases
12.4.3 pKa and pKw
12.5.1 Comparing the pH of Acids, Bases and Salts
12.5.2 The Effect of Dilution on Strong and Weak Acids
12.6.1 Drawing Acid–Base Titration Curves
12.6.2 Interpreting Acid–Base Titration Curves
12.6.3 Selecting Suitable Indicators
12.6.4 Weak Acid–Strong Base Curves, Buffer Action and Ka
12.7.1 Buffer Solutions and Their Action
12.7.2 Calculating the pH of Buffer Solutions
12.7.3 Preparing Buffer Solutions of a Specified pH
12.8.1 Enthalpy Changes of Neutralisation for Strong and Weak Acids
12.8.2 The Carbonic Acid–Hydrogencarbonate Buffer in Blood
13.1.1 Lattice Energy and Ionic Bond Strength
13.1.2 Enthalpy of Atomisation and Electron Affinity
13.1.3 Constructing Born–Haber Cycles
13.1.4 Born–Haber Cycle Calculations
13.2.1 Experimental and Theoretical Lattice Energies
13.2.2 Polarisation and Covalent Character
13.2.3 Polarising Power of Cations
13.2.4 Polarisability of Anions
13.3.1 Enthalpy Changes of Solution and Hydration
13.3.2 Energy Cycles for Solution and Hydration
13.3.3 Effects of Ionic Charge and Radius
13.4.1 Why Enthalpy Alone Does Not Determine Feasibility
13.4.2 Entropy and the Natural Direction of Change
13.4.3 Entropy Changes During State Changes and Dissolving
13.4.4 Entropy Changes and the Number of Moles
13.4.5 Enthalpy and Disorder in Example Reactions
13.5.1 Total Entropy Change
13.5.2 Calculating the Entropy Change of the System
13.5.3 Calculating the Entropy Change of the Surroundings
13.6.1 Enthalpy, Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy
13.6.2 Predicting Reaction Feasibility Using ΔG
13.6.3 Determining the Temperature of Feasibility
13.6.4 Gibbs Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
13.7.1 Why a Negative ΔG Does Not Guarantee a Reaction
13.7.2 Kinetic Inhibition of Thermodynamically Feasible Reactions
14.1.1 Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Electron Transfer
14.1.2 Oxidation Numbers and Redox Changes
14.2.1 Standard Electrode Potentials and Standard Conditions
14.2.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
14.2.3 Measuring Standard Electrode Potentials
14.2.4 Core Practical 10: Investigating Electrochemical Cells
14.3.1 Conventional Cell Diagrams
14.3.2 Calculating Standard Cell EMF
14.3.3 Electrode Potentials and the Electrochemical Series
14.4.1 Predicting Thermodynamic Feasibility
14.4.2 Cell EMF, Entropy Change and Equilibrium Constants
14.4.3 Limitations of Electrode-Potential Predictions
14.4.4 Disproportionation and Electrode Potentials
14.5.1 Electrode Potentials in Storage Cells
14.5.2 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen-Rich Fuels
14.5.3 Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells in Acidic and Alkaline Conditions
14.6.1 Redox Titration Methods and Core Practical 11
14.6.2 Iron(II)–Manganate(VII) Titration Calculations
14.6.3 Iodine–Thiosulfate Titration Calculations
14.1 Foundations of Redox Chemistry14.2 Standard Electrode Potentials and Half-Cells14.3 Electrochemical Cells and Cell EMF14.4 Feasibility, Equilibrium and Disproportionation
15.1.1 Electronic Configurations of Period 4 d-Block Atoms and Ions
15.1.2 Transition Metals and Variable Oxidation States
15.2.1 Ligands, Dative Bonding and Complex Ions
15.2.2 Coordination Number and Monodentate Ligands
15.2.3 Octahedral Complex Ions
15.2.4 Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes
15.2.5 Cis-Platin and Geometric Isomerism
15.2.6 Bidentate and Multidentate Ligands
15.2.7 Haemoglobin, Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide
15.3.1 d-Orbital Splitting and Coloured Ions
15.3.2 Colourless Ions and Causes of Colour Change
15.4.1 Colours of Vanadium Oxidation States
15.4.2 Interconverting Vanadium Oxidation States
15.4.3 Redox Reactions of Chromium
15.4.4 Chromate–Dichromate Equilibrium
15.5.1 Reactions of Transition-Metal Ions with Sodium Hydroxide
15.5.2 Reactions of Transition-Metal Ions with Ammonia
15.5.3 Ligand Exchange and Amphoteric Behaviour
15.6.1 Copper(II)–Ammonia Ligand Exchange
15.6.2 Chloride Ligand Exchange and Coordination Changes
15.6.3 The Chelate Effect and Complex Stability
15.7.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts
15.7.2 Vanadium(V) Oxide in the Contact Process
15.7.3 Catalytic Converters
15.7.4 Homogeneous Catalysis and Autocatalysis
15.7.5 Core Practical 12: Preparing a Transition-Metal Complex
16.1.1 Rate, Rate Equations and Reaction Order
16.1.2 Rate Constants, Half-Life and the Rate-Determining Step
16.1.3 Activation Energy and Types of Catalyst
16.1.4 Determining and Using Rate Equations
16.2.1 Selecting Techniques to Measure Reaction Rates
16.2.2 Initial-Rate and Clock-Reaction Methods
16.2.3 Continuous Monitoring and Rate Graphs
16.3.1 Rates and Half-Life from Reaction Graphs
16.3.2 Reaction Order from Concentration–Time Graphs
16.3.3 Reaction Order from Rate–Concentration Graphs
16.3.4 Reaction Order from Initial-Rate Data
16.4.1 Core Practical 13a: Following the Iodination of Propanone
16.4.2 Determining the Rate Equation for Iodination
16.4.3 Rate-Determining Step and Mechanism of Iodination
16.5.1 Deducing Rate-Determining Steps and Mechanisms
16.5.2 Kinetic Evidence for SN1 Hydrolysis
16.5.3 Kinetic Evidence for SN2 Hydrolysis
16.6.1 Core Practical 13b: The Harcourt–Esson Iodine Clock
16.6.2 Arrhenius Plots and Activation Energy
16.6.3 Core Practical 14: Measuring Activation Energy
17.1.1 Chiral Centres and Non-Superimposable Mirror Images
17.1.2 Optical Activity and Plane-Polarised Light
17.1.3 Racemic Mixtures
17.1.4 Optical Activity as Evidence for SN1 and SN2 Mechanisms
17.2.1 Aldehydes, Ketones and Their Physical Properties
17.2.2 Oxidation Tests for Aldehydes and Ketones
17.2.3 Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
17.2.4 Nucleophilic Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide
17.2.5 Testing Carbonyl Compounds with 2,4-DNPH
17.2.6 The Iodoform Reaction
17.3.1 Carboxylic Acid Structure and Physical Properties
17.3.2 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
17.3.3 Reduction, Neutralisation and Chlorination of Carboxylic Acids
17.3.4 Esterification and Ester Preparation
17.3.5 Reactions of Acyl Chlorides
17.3.6 Acidic and Alkaline Hydrolysis of Esters
17.3.7 Polyesters and Condensation Polymerisation
18.1.1 Kekulé and Delocalised Models of Benzene
18.1.2 Evidence for the Delocalised Model of Benzene
18.1.3 Benzene Reactivity and Bromination
18.1.4 Nitration of Benzene
18.1.5 Friedel-Crafts Reactions
18.1.6 Bromination of Phenol
18.2.1 Identifying Amines, Amides and Amino Acids
18.2.2 Primary Amines as Bases
18.2.3 Acylation and Alkylation of Primary Amines
18.2.4 Reactions of Amines with Copper(II) Ions
18.2.5 Comparing the Basicity of Ammonia and Amines
18.2.6 Preparing Primary Aliphatic Amines
18.2.7 Aromatic Amines and the Preparation of Amides
18.3.1 Polyamides and Condensation Polymerisation
18.3.2 Repeat Units from Diols, Diamines and Dicarboxylic Acids
18.3.3 Condensation Polymers Formed from Amino Acids
18.3.4 Zwitterions and Acid-Base Properties of 2-Amino Acids
18.3.5 Optical Activity of 2-Amino Acids
18.3.6 Peptide Bonds, Protein Formation and Hydrolysis
18.3.7 Chromatography of Amino Acids and Analysis of Unknowns
18.4.1 Empirical and Molecular Formulae from Quantitative Data
18.4.2 Functional-Group Tests and Infrared Spectroscopy
18.4.3 Mass Spectrometry and NMR in Structure Deduction
18.4.4 Planning Multi-Step Organic Syntheses
18.4.5 Grignard Reagents and Carbon-Chain Extension
18.4.6 Selecting Safe Procedures for Organic Reactions
18.4.7 Reflux, Washing, Extraction, Drying and Distillation
18.4.8 Recrystallisation, Purity Testing and Aspirin Preparation
19.1.1 Accurate Relative Molecular Mass
19.1.2 Deducing Structures from Accurate Mass Spectra
19.2.1 Carbon Environments and Chemical Shifts
19.2.2 Interpreting Carbon-13 NMR Spectra
19.3.1 Proton Environments and Chemical Shifts
19.3.2 Peak Areas and Proton Ratios
19.3.3 Spin-Spin Splitting and the n+1 Rule
19.3.4 Predicting Proton NMR Spectra and Deducing Structures
19.4.1 Mobile and Stationary Phases in Chromatography
19.4.2 Calculating Rf Values
19.4.3 HPLC, Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry

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