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AP Physics 2: Algebra

Study notes
1.1.1 Atomic Collisions in Gases
1.1.2 Momentum Conservation in Gas Collisions
1.1.3 Gas Pressure on Surfaces
1.1.4 Pressure Throughout a Gas
1.1.5 Temperature and Average Kinetic Energy
1.1.6 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distributions
1.1.7 Root-Mean-Square Speed and Temperature
1.2.1 Assumptions of an Ideal Gas
1.2.2 Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Amount of Gas
1.2.3 Using Gas Graphs to Determine Properties
1.2.4 Extrapolating Absolute Zero from Pressure-Temperature Graphs
1.3.1 Thermal Contact Between Systems
1.3.2 Heating and Cooling as Energy Transfer
1.3.3 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
1.3.4 Direction of Spontaneous Thermal Energy Transfer
1.3.5 Atomic Collisions and Energy Transfer
1.3.6 Thermal Equilibrium
1.4.1 Internal Energy of a System
1.4.2 Internal Energy of an Ideal Monatomic Gas
1.4.3 Changes in Internal Energy
1.4.4 Conservation of Energy in Thermodynamic Systems
1.4.5 Isolated and Closed Systems
1.4.6 Work Done by External Pressure
1.4.7 Pressure-Volume Diagrams and Work
1.4.8 Special Thermodynamic Processes
1.5.1 Energy Required for Temperature Change
1.5.2 Specific Heat as an Intrinsic Property
1.5.3 Rate of Energy Transfer by Conduction
1.5.4 Thermal Conductivity as an Intrinsic Property
1.6.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
1.6.2 Entropy as Energy Spreading
1.6.3 Localized Energy and Dispersal
1.6.4 Entropy as a State Function
1.6.5 Maximum Entropy and Thermodynamic Equilibrium
1.6.6 Entropy Changes in Isolated and Closed Systems
2.1.1 Charge as a Fundamental Property
2.1.2 Elementary Charge and Point Charge Models
2.1.3 Coulomb's Law and Force Magnitude
2.1.4 Attraction, Repulsion, and Force Direction
2.1.5 Contact Forces and Electric Forces in Everyday Objects
2.1.6 Comparing Electric and Gravitational Forces
2.1.7 Why Gravity Dominates at Large Scales
2.1.8 Electric Permittivity, Polarization, Conductors, and Insulators
2.2.1 Changing Net Charge and Charge Distribution
2.2.2 Charging by Friction and Contact
2.2.3 Induced Charge Separation and Polarization
2.2.4 Electron Transfer, Charge Conservation, and Grounding
2.3.1 Electric Fields from Charged Objects
2.3.2 Test Charges and Field Direction
2.3.3 Electric Force on Charges in a Field
2.3.4 Electric Field as a Vector Quantity
2.3.5 Field Maps and Field Line Diagrams
2.3.6 Charged Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
2.3.7 Spherical Conductors and Point-Charge Equivalence
2.3.8 Electric Fields in Insulators
2.4.1 Work and Electric Potential Energy
2.4.2 Calculating Electric Potential Energy for Two Charges
2.4.3 Total Electric Potential Energy of Point-Charge Systems
2.5.1 Electric Potential as Energy per Unit Charge
2.5.2 Scalar Superposition of Electric Potential
2.5.3 Electric Potential Difference
2.5.4 Batteries and Charge Separation
2.5.5 Conductors at the Same Electric Potential
2.5.6 Average Electric Field and Potential Difference
2.5.7 Equipotential Lines and Field Maps
2.5.8 Isolines, Field Direction, and Decreasing Potential
2.6.1 Structure and Charge Separation in Parallel-Plate Capacitors
2.6.2 Capacitance and Potential Difference
2.6.3 Physical Factors Affecting Capacitance
2.6.4 Dielectric Constant and Permittivity in Capacitance
2.6.5 Electric Field Between Parallel Plates
2.6.6 Charged Particle Motion Between Plates
2.6.7 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
2.6.8 Dielectrics and Stored Capacitor Energy
2.7.1 Potential Difference and Change in Electric Potential Energy
2.7.2 Conservation of Energy for Moving Charges
3.1.1 Current as Rate of Charge Flow
3.1.2 Potential Difference and Motion of Charge
3.1.3 Zero Current and Charge Carrier Motion
3.1.4 Conventional Current and Electron Flow
3.2.1 Circuit Elements and Electrical Loops
3.2.2 Closed, Open, and Short Circuits
3.2.3 Physical Arrangement and Multiple Loops
3.2.4 Circuit Schematic Symbols
3.2.5 Variable Elements and Conventional Current
3.3.1 Resistance and Opposition to Charge Motion
3.3.2 Geometry and Resistance
3.3.3 Resistivity, Materials, and Temperature
3.3.4 Ohm's Law in Circuit Elements
3.3.5 Ohmic Materials and Constant Resistance
3.3.6 Heating and Graphs of Resistance
3.4.1 Power as Rate of Energy Transfer
3.4.2 Power Equations and Circuit Variables
3.4.3 Bulb Brightness and Power
3.5.1 Series and Parallel Connections
3.5.2 Equivalent Resistance in Series
3.5.3 Equivalent Resistance in Parallel
3.5.4 Ideal Wires and Ideal Batteries
3.5.5 Internal Resistance and Terminal Voltage
3.5.6 Measuring Current with Ammeters
3.5.7 Measuring Potential Difference with Voltmeters
3.5.8 Nonideal Meters and Circuit Assumptions
3.6.1 Energy Changes and Potential Difference
3.6.2 Conservation of Energy in Closed Loops
3.6.3 Electric Potential Graphs Around Loops
3.7.1 Conservation of Charge at Junctions
3.7.2 Current Into and Out of Junctions
3.8.1 Equivalent Capacitance in Capacitor Networks
3.8.2 Capacitors in Series
3.8.3 Capacitors in Parallel and Series Charge
3.8.4 Time Constant in RC Circuits
3.8.5 Changing Current, Potential Difference, and Energy
3.8.6 Initial and Final Charging Behavior
3.8.7 Discharging Capacitors
3.8.8 Qualitative Modeling of RC Circuits
4.1.1 Magnetic Fields as Vector Fields
4.1.2 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetic Poles
4.1.3 Representing Magnetic Field Lines
4.1.4 Bar Magnets and Pole Interactions
4.1.5 Magnetic Dipoles in Materials
4.1.6 Magnetic Alignment, Distance, and Earth’s Field
4.1.7 Ferromagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Diamagnetic Materials
4.1.8 Magnetic Permeability of Materials
4.2.1 Magnetic Fields Produced by Moving Charges
4.2.2 Direction of Fields from Moving Charges
4.2.3 Maximum Field Strength from Moving Charges
4.2.4 Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges
4.2.5 Factors Affecting Magnetic Force Magnitude
4.2.6 Direction of Magnetic Force
4.2.7 Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields
4.2.8 The Hall Effect
4.3.1 Magnetic Fields Around Current-Carrying Wires
4.3.2 Field Strength, Current, and Distance
4.3.3 Right-Hand Rule for Wires and Loops
4.3.4 Fields from Multiple Current-Carrying Wires
4.3.5 Magnetic Forces on Current-Carrying Wires
4.3.6 Factors Affecting Force on a Wire
4.3.7 Direction of Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
4.4.1 Magnetic Flux
4.4.2 Area Vectors and Flux Sign
4.4.3 Calculating Magnetic Flux
4.4.4 Faraday’s Law and Induced EMF
4.4.5 Lenz’s Law and Opposing Flux Changes
4.4.6 Right-Hand Rule in Induction
4.4.7 Motional EMF on Conducting Rails
5.1.1 Light Rays and Wavefronts
5.1.2 Using Ray Diagrams in Geometric Optics
5.1.3 Limits of the Ray Model
5.1.4 Lasers as Ray Sources
5.1.5 The Law of Reflection
5.1.6 Diffuse and Specular Reflection
5.2.1 Concave Mirrors and Focal Points
5.2.2 Convex and Plane Mirror Focal Points
5.2.3 Radius of Curvature and Focal Length
5.2.4 Real and Virtual Images in Mirrors
5.2.5 Mirror Equation and Sign Conventions
5.2.6 Plane Mirrors and Image Distance
5.2.7 Magnification and Image Properties
5.2.8 Mirror Ray Diagrams
5.3.1 Refraction and Changing Light Speed
5.3.2 Index of Refraction
5.3.3 Snell's Law
5.3.4 Bending Toward or Away from the Normal
5.3.5 Incidence Along the Normal
5.3.6 Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle
5.4.1 Convex Lenses and Focal Points
5.4.2 Concave Lenses and Virtual Focal Points
5.4.3 Real and Virtual Images in Lenses
5.4.4 Thin-Lens Equation and Image Location
5.4.5 Lens Sign Conventions and Focal Points
5.4.6 Lens Magnification
5.4.7 Lens Ray Diagrams and Image Properties
6.1.1 Wave Pulses, Continuous Waves, and Energy Transfer
6.1.2 Mechanical and Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
6.1.3 Wave Speed in Media and Strings
6.1.4 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
6.1.5 Sound Waves, Compressions, and Rarefactions
6.1.6 Amplitude, Loudness, and Wave Energy
6.2.1 Period and Frequency
6.2.2 Amplitude, Frequency, Energy, and Pitch
6.2.3 Wavelength and Wave Position
6.2.4 Sinusoidal Wave Equations
6.2.5 Wave Speed, Wavelength, and Frequency
6.3.1 Transmission and Reflection at Boundaries
6.3.2 Wave Inversion and Medium Changes
6.3.3 Frequency Across Boundaries
6.3.4 Polarization of Transverse Waves
6.3.5 Intensity and Power Transfer
6.4.1 Electric and Magnetic Field Oscillations
6.4.2 Transverse Plane Waves
6.4.3 Electromagnetic Waves Without a Medium
6.4.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
6.4.5 Visible Light and Color
6.4.6 Light, Electromagnetic Radiation, and Boundary Limits
6.5.1 Rest Frequency, Observed Frequency, and Relative Motion
6.5.2 Relative Velocity and Frequency Shift
6.5.3 Sources Moving Toward or Away From Observers
6.5.4 Qualitative Doppler Effect Applications
6.6.1 Wave Interference and Overlap
6.6.2 Superposition of Displacements
6.6.3 Constructive and Destructive Interference
6.6.4 Amplitude Variations and Beat Frequency
6.6.5 Standing Waves from Opposite Traveling Waves
6.6.6 Nodes, Antinodes, and Boundary Conditions
6.6.7 Harmonics and Fundamental Frequency
6.6.8 Standing Wave Representations and Relationships
6.7.1 Diffraction Around Edges and Openings
6.7.2 Opening Size and Wavelength
6.7.3 Single-Slit Interference Patterns
6.7.4 Path Length Difference in Single-Slit Diffraction
6.7.5 Small-Angle Approximation for Minima
6.7.6 Opening Shape and Pattern Interpretation
6.8.1 Double-Slit Interference and Diffraction
6.8.2 Uniformly Spaced Maxima and Bright Bands
6.8.3 Path Length Difference in Double-Slit Patterns
6.8.4 Small-Angle Approximation for Maxima
6.8.5 Single-Slit Envelopes in Double-Slit Patterns
6.8.6 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
6.8.7 Diffraction Gratings and Multiple Slits
6.8.8 White Light Dispersion with Diffraction Gratings
6.9.1 Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption in Thin Films
6.9.2 Phase Changes at Reflecting Boundaries
6.9.3 Refraction and Phase in Thin Films
6.9.4 Thin-Film Interference from Reflected Waves
6.9.5 Film Thickness, Wavelength, Phase, and Angle
6.9.6 Soap Bubbles, Oil Films, and Color Variation
6.9.7 Antireflection Coatings and Destructive Interference
6.9.8 Quantitative Limits for Thin-Film Interference
7.1.1 Why Quantum Theory Is Needed
7.1.2 Matter and Light as Waves and Particles
7.1.3 Photons and Quantized Light Energy
7.1.4 Photon Motion and Speed in Media
7.1.5 De Broglie Wavelength and Matter Waves
7.1.6 Quantized Energy and Momentum in Bound Systems
7.2.1 Atomic Structure and Nuclear Notation
7.2.2 Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Atomic Mass
7.2.3 Electrons in the Bohr Model
7.2.4 Allowed Energy States and Standing Waves
7.2.5 AP Limits of Atomic Structure Models
7.3.1 Photon Absorption and Emission by Atoms
7.3.2 Energy Level Transitions
7.3.3 Photon Frequency, Wavelength, and Energy Differences
7.3.4 Element Spectra and Identification
7.3.5 Using Energy Level Diagrams
7.3.6 Binding Energy and Ionization
7.4.1 Thermal Energy and Electromagnetic Radiation
7.4.2 The Ideal Blackbody Model
7.4.3 Continuous Spectra and Planck’s Law
7.4.4 Wien’s Law and Peak Wavelength
7.4.5 Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Radiated Power
7.5.1 Electron Emission from Photoactive Materials
7.5.2 Threshold Frequency and Electron Emission
7.5.3 Photon Number Versus Electron Energy
7.5.4 Work Function and Maximum Kinetic Energy
7.5.5 Photoelectric Effect Experiments and Stopping Potential
7.5.6 AP Limits for Work Functions
7.6.1 Photon-Electron Collisions
7.6.2 Evidence for Photon Momentum
7.6.3 Changes in Photon Energy, Frequency, and Wavelength
7.6.4 Scattering Angle and Wavelength Shift
7.6.5 Momentum Conservation in Two Dimensions
7.7.1 The Strong Force and Nucleon Interactions
7.7.2 Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions
7.7.3 Mass-Energy Equivalence and Energy Release
7.7.4 Nuclear Fusion
7.7.5 Nuclear Fission
7.7.6 Binding Energy and Spontaneous Fission
7.7.7 Radioactive Decay and Half-Life
7.7.8 Decay Constant, Remaining Nuclei, and Dating
7.8.1 Particles Emitted in Nuclear Decay
7.8.2 Conservation Rules in Nuclear Decay
7.8.3 Alpha Decay
7.8.4 Beta-Minus Decay
7.8.5 Beta-Plus Decay
7.8.6 Gamma Decay
7.8.7 Isotopes and AP Limits for Decay Types

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