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OCR A-Level Biology

Study notes
1.1.1 Experimental design: aims, hypotheses, and variables
1.1.2 Selecting suitable apparatus and techniques
1.1.3 Identifying and controlling variables
1.1.4 Writing practical methods and predicted outcomes
1.1.5 Assessing suitability of the method
1.2.1 Using practical apparatus and techniques correctly
1.2.2 Measurement units and conversions
1.2.3 Recording observations and raw data
1.2.4 Presenting processed data clearly
1.3.1 Processing and interpreting results
1.3.2 Mathematical skills for data analysis
1.3.3 Using significant figures correctly
1.3.4 Plotting graphs: axes, scales, quantities and units
1.3.5 Interpreting graphs and trends
1.3.6 Measuring gradients and intercepts
1.4.1 Evaluating results and drawing conclusions
1.4.2 Identifying anomalies
1.4.3 Recognising limitations of procedures
1.4.4 Precision, accuracy, uncertainties and percentage error
1.4.5 Refining experimental design
2.1.1 Investigative approaches and problem‑solving
2.1.2 Safe and correct use of equipment and risk management
2.1.3 Observations, measurements and scientific record‑keeping
2.1.4 Presenting data and using software tools
2.1.5 Research skills and correct citation
2.1.6 Using instruments, techniques and following instructions
2.2.1 Quantitative measurements and instrumentation
2.2.2 Laboratory glassware, serial dilutions and qualitative reagents
2.2.3 Microscopy and scientific drawings
2.2.4 Separation techniques: chromatography and electrophoresis
2.2.5 Working with organisms, microbiology and dissection
2.2.6 Fieldwork sampling and the use of ICT
3.1.1 Microscopy: light, TEM and SEM
3.1.2 Slide preparation, graticules and differential staining
3.1.3 Biological drawings and magnification calculations
3.1.4 Eukaryotic cell ultrastructure and organelle functions
3.1.5 Protein synthesis, secretion and the cytoskeleton
3.1.6 Prokaryotes versus eukaryotes; interpreting EM photomicrographs
3.2.1 Water: hydrogen bonding, properties and biological roles
3.2.2 Carbohydrates: monomers, polymers and glycosidic bonds
3.2.3 Glucose, disaccharides and key polysaccharides
3.2.4 Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol and synthesis
3.2.5 Proteins: amino acids, bonding and levels of structure
3.2.6 Functional molecules, ions and analyses
3.3.1 Nucleotide structure: DNA vs RNA, purines and pyrimidines
3.3.2 Polynucleotide formation and ATP/ADP as phosphorylated nucleotides
3.3.3 DNA structure and purification practical
3.3.4 Semi-conservative replication and mutation
3.3.5 The genetic code
3.3.6 Transcription and translation
3.4.1 Enzymes in metabolism: intra- and extracellular roles
3.4.2 Mechanisms: active site, lock-and-key and induced fit
3.4.3 Effects of temperature and pH on enzyme activity
3.4.4 Concentration effects and core practical skills
3.4.5 Cofactors and coenzymes
3.4.6 Enzyme inhibition and regulation
3.5.1 Roles of membranes and cell signalling
3.5.2 Fluid mosaic structure and receptors
3.5.3 Permeability factors and practicals
3.5.4 Passive transport across membranes
3.5.5 Active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
3.5.6 Osmosis and water potential effects
3.6.1 Cell cycle and its regulation
3.6.2 Mitosis stages and significance
3.6.3 Meiosis stages and genetic variation
3.6.4 Observing mitosis in plant tissues
3.6.5 Cell specialisation and tissue–organ organisation
3.6.6 Stem cells: differentiation and biomedical potential
4.1.1 Need for specialised exchange surfaces
4.1.2 Features of efficient exchange surfaces
4.1.3 Mammalian gas exchange system: structure and function
4.1.4 Ventilation mechanics in mammals
4.1.5 Lung volumes and spirometry
4.1.6 Ventilation and gas exchange in bony fish
4.1.7 Ventilation and gas exchange in insects
4.1.8 Practical skills: dissections and microscopy of exchange surfaces
4.2.1 Why multicellular animals need transport systems
4.2.2 Circulatory system types across taxa
4.2.3 Blood vessels: structure and function
4.2.4 Formation of tissue fluid and lymph
4.2.5 Mammalian heart: external and internal anatomy
4.2.6 The cardiac cycle and cardiac output
4.2.7 Initiation and coordination of heart action; ECGs
4.2.8 Transport of gases by haemoglobin; dissociation curves
4.3.1 Why multicellular plants need transport systems
4.3.2 Vascular tissues in roots, stems and leaves
4.3.3 Transpiration and environmental factors
4.3.4 Measuring transpiration: practical investigations
4.3.5 Water transport pathways and mechanisms
4.3.6 Plant adaptations to water availability
4.3.7 Phloem translocation and active loading
5.1.1 Types of pathogens and named examples
5.1.2 Transmission in animals and plants
5.1.3 Plant defences against pathogens
5.1.4 Primary non-specific animal defences
5.1.5 Phagocytes: structure and mode of action
5.1.6 Specific immune response and immunological memory
5.1.7 Antibodies and immune mechanisms
5.1.8 Vaccination, medicines and antibiotics
6.1.1 Levels of biodiversity
6.1.2 Sampling in biodiversity studies
6.1.3 Species richness and evenness
6.1.4 Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D)
6.1.5 Assessing genetic biodiversity
6.1.6 Factors affecting biodiversity
6.1.7 Why maintain biodiversity?
6.1.8 Conservation methods and agreements
6.2.1 Biological classification and hierarchy
6.2.2 The binomial naming system
6.2.3 Five kingdoms and new evidence
6.2.4 Classification and phylogeny
6.2.5 Evidence for evolution by natural selection
6.2.6 Types and causes of variation
6.2.7 Adaptations to environments
6.2.8 Natural selection in populations and human implications
7.1.1 Need for communication systems
7.1.2 Cell signalling between cells
7.1.3 Principles of homeostasis
7.1.4 Temperature control in endotherms
7.1.5 Temperature control in ectotherms
7.1.6 Integrating physiological and behavioural control
7.2.1 Definition and importance of excretion
7.2.2 Liver structure and histology
7.2.3 Liver functions in homeostasis
7.2.4 Kidney structure and nephron histology
7.2.5 Kidney function: filtration and reabsorption
7.2.6 Control of blood water potential
7.2.7 Kidney failure and treatments
7.2.8 Urine in medical diagnosis
7.3.1 Sensory receptors and transduction
7.3.2 Neurone types and myelination
7.3.3 Resting potential and action potentials
7.3.4 Impulse transmission and frequency coding
7.3.5 Synapses and neurotransmission
7.4.1 Endocrine communication by hormones
7.4.2 Adrenal glands: structure and hormones
7.4.3 Pancreas histology
7.4.4 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
7.4.5 Control of insulin secretion
7.4.6 Type 1 versus Type 2 diabetes
7.4.7 Treatments for diabetes
7.5.1 Plant responses and tropisms
7.5.2 Roles of plant hormones
7.5.3 Auxins and apical dominance
7.5.4 Gibberellins in stem elongation and germination
7.5.5 Investigating plant hormones
7.5.6 Commercial uses of plant hormones
7.5.7 Nervous system and brain organisation
7.5.8 Reflexes, coordination and second messengers
7.5.9 Heart rate control and muscle contraction
8.1.1 Photosynthesis and respiration interrelationship
8.1.2 Chloroplast structure and sites of stages
8.1.3 Photosynthetic pigments and TLC
8.1.4 Light‑dependent reactions
8.1.5 Light‑independent reactions (Calvin cycle)
8.1.6 Fates of triose phosphate (TP)
8.1.7 Factors affecting photosynthesis
8.2.1 Why organisms respire
8.2.2 Mitochondrion structure
8.2.3 Glycolysis
8.2.4 Link reaction and Krebs cycle
8.2.5 Coenzymes and oxidative phosphorylation
8.2.6 Chemiosmotic theory
8.2.7 Anaerobic respiration and investigations
8.2.8 Respiratory substrates, RQ and respirometers
9.1.1 Gene mutations: types and effects
9.1.2 Transcriptional control: lac operon and transcription factors
9.1.3 Post‑transcriptional control: mRNA processing
9.1.4 Post‑translational control: activation by cAMP
9.1.5 Homeobox and Hox genes in body plans
9.1.6 Mitosis and apoptosis in development
9.2.1 Sources of phenotypic variation
9.2.2 Genetic diagrams: monogenic to sex linkage
9.2.3 Identifying linkage and epistasis
9.2.4 Chi‑squared test in genetics
9.2.5 Continuous vs discontinuous variation
9.2.6 Evolutionary forces and speciation
9.2.7 Hardy–Weinberg calculations
9.2.8 Artificial selection: principles and ethics
9.3.1 DNA sequencing: principles and advances
9.3.2 Genome comparisons, polypeptide prediction and synthetic biology
9.3.3 DNA profiling and applications
9.3.4 PCR: principle and applications
9.3.5 Electrophoresis of nucleic acids and proteins
9.3.6 Genetic engineering: principles and vectors
9.3.7 Ethics of genetic manipulation
9.3.8 Gene therapy: somatic vs germ line
10.1.1 Natural plant cloning and cuttings
10.1.2 Micropropagation and tissue culture
10.1.3 Natural animal clones
10.1.4 Artificial animal cloning and evaluation
10.1.5 Microorganisms in biotechnology
10.1.6 Microorganisms as food: pros and cons
10.1.7 Culturing microbes and optimising yield
10.1.8 Immobilised enzymes in biotechnology
11.1.1 Ecosystem dynamics and factors
11.1.2 Biomass transfer and efficiency
11.1.3 Recycling: nitrogen and carbon cycles
11.1.4 Primary and deflected succession
11.1.5 Measuring distribution and abundance
11.2.1 Population size and carrying capacity
11.2.2 Population interactions
11.2.3 Conservation vs preservation
11.2.4 Sustainable resource management
11.2.5 Human impacts and conflict management

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